A Complete Grammar of Esperanto

a complete grammar of
espera:nto

THE INTEKNATIONAL LANGUAGE

A COMPLETE

GEAMMAE OF E8PEEANT0

THE INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE

"WITH

GRADED EXERCISES FOR READING AND TRANSLATION
TOGETHER WITH FULL VOCABULARIES

BY

f

lYY KELLERMAN, A.M., Ph.D.

MEMBER OP THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE AND CHAIRMAN OP EXAMINATIONS

FOR THE ESPERANTO ASSOCIATION OP NORTH AMERICA, MEMBER

OF THE INTEENATIONAti XIXGVA KOMITATO

^

NEW YORK : BOSTON : CHICAGO
D. C. HEATH AND COMPANY

Copyright, 1910, By
D. C. HEATH AND COMPANY

All rights reserved

(Entered at Stationers' Hall, Londoi

2 C6

PRINTED IN U. S. A.

TO

BE. L. L. ZAMENHOF

THE AUTHOR OF
ESPERANTO

PREFACE.

This volume has been prepared to meet a twofold need.
An adequate presentation of the International Language
has become an imperative necessity. Such presentation,
including full and accurate grammatical explanations,
suitably graded reading lessons, and similarly graded
material for translation from English, has not heretofore
been accessible within the compass of a single volume, or
in fact within the compass of any two or three volumes.

The combination of grammar and reader here offered
is therefore unique. It is to furnish not merely an intro-
duction to Esperanto, or a superficial acquaintance with
it, but a genuine understanding of the language and mas-
tery of its use without recourse to additional textbooks,
readers, etc. In other words, this one volume affords as
complete a knowledge of Esperanto as several years'
study of a grammar and various readers will accomplish
for any national language. Inflection, word-formation
and syntax are presented clearly and concisely, yet with
a degree of completeness and in a systematic order that
constitute a new feature. Other points worthy of note
are the following:

The reasons for syntactical usages are given, instead of
mere statements that such usages exist. For example,
clauses of purpose and of result are really explained, in-

VI . PREFACE.

stead of being dismissed with the unsatisfactory remark
that "the imperative follows por ke," or the "use of
tiel. . .ke and tia. . .ke must be distinguished from that of
tiel. . .kiel and tia. . .kia," etc., with but little intimation
of when and why for ke, tiel. . .ke and tia. . .ke are likely
to occur.

Affixes are not mentioned until some familiarity with
the general character of the language is assured, as well
as the possession of a fair vocabulary. They are intro-
duced gradually, with adequate explanation and illustra-
tion. Of importance in connection with word-formation
is an element distinctly new — the explanation and classi-
fication of compound words. Such words, like affixes, are
withheld until the use of simple words is familiar.

Another new feature is the gradual introduction of
correlative words in their logical order, and in their proper
grammatical categories, before they are called "correl-
atives," or tabulated. The tabulation finally presented
is a real classification, with regard to the meaning and
grammatical character of the words, not merely an ar-
bitrary alphabetical arrangement. The use of primary
adverbs precedes the explanation of adverb derivation;
prepositions, especially de, da, je, etc., receive careful at-
tention, also the verb system, and the differentiation of
words whose English equivalents are ambiguous.

A general characteristic of obvious advantage is that
almost without exception new forms and constructions
are illustrated by means of words or roots already familiar.
Likewise, the new words or roots of each lesson recur at
least once in the next lesson, and usually in some lesson
thereafter as well. Each reading exercise gives not only

PREFACE. VU

a thorough appUcation of the grammatical principles of
the lesson, but a review of those in the preceding lesson,
and no use is raade of words or constructions not yet ex-
plained. The comparative ease of the language, and the
lack of necessity for reciting paradigms, permit the read-
ing exercises to be long enough for the student to feel
that he has really mastered something. These exercises
are further unique, in that each after the fifth is a co-
herent narrative, and nearly every one is a story of genu-
ine interest in itself. These stories, if bound separately,
would alone constitute a reader equivalent to those used
in first and second year work in national languages.
(For list of titles, see Table of Contents.)

The second element of the twofold need which this
volume meets is the necessity for a presentation of Espe-
ranto, not as a thing apart, but in that form which will
make it most serviceable as an introduction to national
tongues. A stepping-stone to both ancient and modern
languages, Esperanto may render invaluable aid, and pave
the way for surmounting the many difficulties confronting
both student and teacher. Through Esperanto, the labor
in the acquirement of these languages may be reduced in
the same proportion in which the pleasure and thorough-
ness of such acquirement are increased. For this reason,
the grammatical constructions of Esperanto are here ex-
plained as consistently as possible in accordance with the
usage of national languages, especially those in the school
curriculum, and precise names are assigned to them.
Such matters as contrary to fact conditions, indirect quota-
tions, clauses of purpose and of result, accusatives of time
and measure, expressions of separation, reference, etc., thus

Vlll FREFACE.

become familiar to the student, long before he meets them
in the more difficult garb of a national tongue, whose ex-
ceptions seem to outnumber its rules, and whose idioms
prove more puzzling than its exceptions, unless approached
by the smooth and gradual ascent of the International
Language, Esperanto.

Ivy Kelleeman.
Washington, D. C,
August 3, 1910.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Lesson Page
I. Alphabet. — Vowels. — Consonants. — Names of the
Letters. — Diphthongs. — Combinations of Conso-
nants. — Syllables. — Accent 1

II. Nouns. — The Article. — Adjectives. — Attributive Ad-
jectives. — Present Tense of the Verb 4

III. The Plural Number. — Predicate Adjective and Noun 7

IV. Transitive Verbs. — The Accusative Case. — The Con-

junction Kaj. — The Negative Ne 9

V. The Complementary Infinitive. — Interrogation. — The

Conjunction Nek 12

VI. Personal Pronouns. — Agreement with Pronouns. — -

Conjugation of the Verb 15

VII. The Past Tense. — Prepositions. — Accusative Case of

Personal Pronouns 18

VIII. Reflexive Pronouns. — Reflexive Verbs 20

IX. Limitation of the Third Personal Pronoun. — Posses-
sive Adjectives. — Pronominal Use of Possessive

Adjectives. — La Kato kaj la Pasero 24

X. The Accusative of Direction. — The Article for the
Possessive Adjective. — Apposition. — La Arabo kaj

la Kamelo 27

XI. Possessive Case of Nouns. — Impersonal Verbs. — Verbs
Preceding their Subjects. — Coordinating Conjunc-
tions. — La Arabo en la Dezerto 30

XII. Indirect Statements. — The Indefinite Personal Pro-
noun Oni. — The Future Tense. — La Ventoflago . 34
XIII. The Demonstrative Pronoun Tiu. — Tenses in Indirect
Quotations. — Formation of Feminine Nouns. — En
la Parko 37

ix

X TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Lesson Page

XIV. The Demonstrative Pronoun Ci tiu. — Possessive Form
of the Demonstrative Pronoun. — The Suffix -I1-. —
The Expression of Means or Instrumentahty. — La
Mango 41

XV. The Demonstrative Adjective. — Adverbs Defined and
Classified. — Formation of Opposites. — La Ruza
Juna Viro 44

XVI. The Demonstrative Adverb of Place. — Accompani-
ment. — The Adverb For. — The Meaning of Povi. — •
Malamikoj en la Dezerto 48

XVII. The Demonstrative Temporal Adverb. — Comparison
of Adjectives. — Manner and Characteristic. — Diri,
Paroli and Rakonti. — Frederiko Granda kaj la
Juna Servisto 52

XVIII. The Demonstrative Adverb of Motive or Reason.—
Derivation of Adverbs. — Comparison of Words
Expressing Quantity. — Comparisons Containing
01. — Causal Glauses. — Pri la Sezonoj 55

XIX. Ju and Des in Comparisons. — The Preposition Inter.
— The Preposition Pro. — Prepositions with Ad-
verbs and Other Prepositions. — La Autuno kaj
la Vintro 59

XX. The Demonstrative Adverb of Manner and Degree. —
Prepositions Expressing Time - Relations. — En
Septembro 63

XXI. The Accusative of Time. — Adverbs and the Accusa-
tive of Time. — The Preposition Por. — La Sezonoj
kaj la Mondo 66

XXII. Clauses Expressing Duration of Time. — Clauses Ex-

pressing Anticipation. — The Infinitive with
Anstatau, Por, Antaii ol. — The Expression of a
Part of the Whole. — Diogeno kaj Aleksandro
Granda 70

XXIII. Adverbs Expressing a Part of the Whole. — The

Demonstrative Adverb of Quantity. — Result
Clauses. — En la Butiko 74

TABLE OF COMTENTS. XI

Lesson Page

XXIV. The Interrogative Pronoun. — The Present Active
Participle. — Compound Tenses. — The Progres-
sive Present Tense.— The Suffix -Ej-.— En Nia

Domo 77

XXV. The Interrogative Adjective. — The Imperfect Tense.
— Salutations and Exclamations. — Word Forma-
tion. — Koni and Scii. — La Nepo Vizitas la Avinon 82

XXVI. The Interrogative Adverb of Place.— The Past Ac-
tive Participle. — Adverb Derivation from Prepo-
sitions. — Adverbs Expressing Direction of Mo-
tion.— The Suffix -Eg-.— La Pluvego 86

XXVII. The Interrogative Temporal Adverb. — The Perfect
Tense. — The Preposition fie. — The Suffix -At-. —
Tempo and Fojo. — The Orthography of Proper
Names. — Roberto Bruce kaj la Araneo .... 90

XXVIII. The Interrogative Adverb of Motive or Reason. —
The Infinitive as Subject. — Present Action with
Past Inception. — The Suffix -IJ1-. — Logi and
Vivi. — Pri la Ave kaj la Avino 94

XXIX. The Interrogative Adverb of Manner and Degree. —
The Pluperfect Tense. — Cardinal Numbers.^
The Accusative of Measure. — Nia Familio . . 98

XXX. The Interrogative Adverb of Quantity. — Modifiers
of Impersonally Used Verbs. — Formation of
Cardinal Numerals. — The Suffix -An-. — Leciono
Pri Aritmetiko 102

XXXI. The Relative Pronoun.— The Future Perfect Tense.
— Ordinal Numerals. — Alfredo Granda kaj la

Libro 105

XXXII. Kia as a Relative Adjective. — Kie as a Relative
Adverb. — The Future Active Participle. — The
Periphrastic Future Tenses. — The Suffix -Ind-.
— Alfredo Granda kaj la Kukoj 109

XXXIII. Kiam as a Relative Adverb. — Kiel as a Relative
Adverb. — Numeral Nouns and Adverbs. —
Word Derivation from Prepositions. — La Invito 114

Xii TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Lesson Page

XXXIV. Prepositions as Prefixes.— The Suffix -Ebl-.— Ex-
pression of the Highest Degree Possible. — •
Titles and Terms of Address. — Ce la Festo . . 118
XXXV. Kiom as a Relative Adverb. — The Present Pas-
sive Participle. — Fractions. — Descriptive Com-
pounds. — La Hinoj 122

XXXVI. The Present Passive Tense.— The Use of De to
Express Agency. — The General Meaning of
De. — ^Word Derivation from Primary Ad-
verbs. — The Suffix -1st-. — Antikva Respubliko 126
XXXVII. The Distributive Pronoun.— The Preposition Po.—
Dependent Compounds. — La Capelo sur la

Stango 130

XXXVIII. The Distributive Adjective.— The Imperfect Pas-
sive Tense. — Compound Tenses of Impersonal
Verbs. — Reciprocal Expressions. — The Suffix
-Uj-.— Vilhelmo Tell kaj la Porno 134

XXXIX. The Distributive Adverb of Place.- The Future
Passive Tense. — Possessive Compounds. — The
Time of Day.— The Suffix -Obi-.— En la

Stacidomo 138

XL. The Distributive Temporal Adverb. — The Dis-
tributive Adverb fiial. — The Past Passive Par-
ticiple. — The Perfect Passive Tense. — The
Preposition Lau. — The Suffix -Em-, — La Per-

dita Infano 141

XLI. The Distributive Adverb Ciel.— The Distributive
Adverb fiiom. — The Pluperfect Passive Tense.
— The Future Perfect Passive Tense. — The Ex-
pression of Material. — The Suffix -Et-. — La

Donaco 145

XLII. The Future Passive Participle. — The Passive Peri-
phrastic Future Tenses. — The Generic Article.
—The Suffix -Ec-.— Sur la VaporSipo .... 149
XLIII. The Indefinite Pronoun. — Participial Nouns. — The
Prefix Ek-.— The Suffix -Id-.— La Nesto sur
la Tendo 153

TABLE OF CONTENTS. XUl

Lesson Page

XLIV. The Indefinite Adjective. — The Indefinite Adverb
of Place. — Predicate Nominatives. — La Cevalo

kaj la Sonorilo 157

XLV. The Indefinite Temporal Adverb. — The Indeiinite
Adverb lal. — Causative Verbs. — Emphasis by

Means of Ja. — Ce la Malnova Ponto 160

XL VI. The Indefinite Adverb lel.— The Indefinite Adverb
lom.— The Suffix -Ad-.— The Use of Mem.—

Arfiimedo kaj la Krone j 164

XL VII. The Negative Pronoun. — The Adverbial Partici-
ple. — The Prefix Re-. — La Filozofo Arfiimedo . 168
XLVIII. The Negative Adjective.— The Negative Adverb
of Place. — The Negative Temporal Adverb. — ■
The Suffix -A]-.— The Adverb Jen.— Du

Artkonkursoj 172

XLIX. The Negative Adverbs Nenial, Neniel, Neniom. —

The Suffix -Ig-.— La Krepusko 176

L. The Pronouns ending in -0. — Correlative Words.
—The Use of Ajn.— The Suffix -Ing-.— La

Gordia Ligajo 180

LI. The Pronoun Ambau. — Formations with -Ig- and
-Ig-. — Factual Conditions. — La Monahoj kaj

la Azeno 184

LII. The Conditional Mood. — Compound Tenses of the
Conditional Mood. — Less Vivid Conditions. —
Independent Use of the Conditional Mood. — •

The Prefix Dis-. — Pri la Gravitado 188

LIII. Conditions Contrary to Fact. — The Verb Devi. —

The Preposition Sen. — La Filozofo Sokrato . . 192
LIV. Summary of Conditions. — Clauses of Imaginative
Comparison. — The Use of Al to Express Refer-
ence. — The Suffix -Estr-. — La Ostracismo de

Aristejdo 196

LV. The Imperative Mood. — Resolve and Exhortation.
— Commands and Prohibitions. — Less Peremp-
tory Uses of the Imperative. — The Use of
MoSto. — La Glavo de Damoklo 200

XIV TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Lesson Faqh

LVI. The Imperative in Subordinate Clauses. — The
Preposition Je. — The SufRx -Op-. — La MarSado

de la Dekmil Grekoj 204

LVII. Clauses Expressing Purpose.^Further Uses of the
Accusative. — Synopsis of the Conjugation of
the Verb. — The Suffix -Um-. — La Reirado de

la Dekmilo 209

LVIII. Permission and Possibility. — The Prefix Ge-. —
The Suffix -Ac-. — Interjections. — Aieksandro

Granda 215

LIX. The Position of Unemphatic Pronouns. — Some
Intransitive Verbs. — The Suffix -Er-. — The
Prefixes Bo- and Duon-. — Correspondence. —

Kelkaj Leteroj 218

LX. Some Transitive Verbs. — Ehsion. — The Prefix
Eks-.— The Prefix Pra-,— The Suffixes -Cj-
and -Nj-. — Weights and Measures. — The In-
ternational Money System. — Abbreviations. —
Pri La Kamero 224

Esperanto-English Vocabulary 233

English-Esperanto Vocabulary 273

Index S25

A. COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF
ESPERANTO.

LESSON I.
ALPHABET.

1. The Esperanto alphabet contains the following
letters: a, b, c, c, d, e, f, g, g, h, fi, i, j, j, k, 1, m, n, o, p,
r, s, §, t, u, u, V, z.

VOWELS.

2. The vowels of the alphabet are pronounced as follows:

a as in far.

e as in fiance, like a in fate.*

i as in machine.

as in toll, for.

u as in rude, rural.

CONSONANTS.

3. The consonants b, d, f, h, k, 1, m, n, p, t, v, z, are pro-
nounced as in English, and the remaining eleven as fol-
lows:

c like ts in hats, tsetse.

t like ch in chin, much.

g like g in go, big.

g like g in gem, j in jar.

fi is produced by expelling the breath forcibly, with the throat

only partially open.f
j like y in yes, beyond.
} like z in azure, s in visual.

1 is slightly trilled or rolled.

* This " long a " sound in English frequently ends with a vanish, — a brief
terminal sound of T, which makes the vowel slightly diphthongal, as in day,
aye. Such a vanish must not be given to any of the Esperanto vowels.

t As in pronouncing German and Scotch ch, Spanish j, Irish gh, Russian x,
Classical Greek x, etc. There are only a few words containing this consonant.

LESSON I. [§§4-6

s like s in see, basis.

§ like sh in shine, rash, ch in machine.

t. like w or consonantal u. See Diphthongs, 5.

NAMES OF THE LETTERS.

4. The vowels are named by their sounds, as given in 2.
The names of the consonants are bo, co, co, do, fo, go, |o,
ho, fio, jo, Jo, ko, lo, mo, no, po, ro, so, so, to, 60, vo, zo.
These are used in speaking of the letters, in pronouncing
them in abbreviations, as ko to po for k. t. p. ( = etc.),
and in spelling words, as bo, i, ro, do, o, birdo.

DIPHTHONGS.

5. Diphthongs are combinations of two vowels uttered
as a single sound, by one breath-impulse. The diphthongs
in Esperanto contain an i or u sound as the second element,
but in order to avoid confusion with combinations of
vowels not forming diphthongs (as in naiva, like English
naive, etc.), they are written with j and vi instead. Their
pronunciation is as follows:

aj like ai in aisle.

ej like ei in vein, ey in they.

oj like oi in coin, oy in hoy.

uj like ui in ruin, u(e)y in gluey.

eu like ayw in wayward, or like e{h)oo pronounced together.

au like ou in oui, ow in owl.

COMBINATIONS OF CONSONANTS.

6. Each consonant, in a combination of two or more
consonants, is pronounced with its full value, whether

§7] LESSON I. 3

within a word or at its beginning. There are no silent
letters.

a. Thus, both consonants are clearly sounded in the
groups kn, kv, gv, sv, in such words as knabo, kvin, gvidi,
sviso.

b. The combination kz, as in ekzisti, ekzameno, must
not be modified to the gs or ks represented by x in exist,
execute.

c. The combination sc, as in escepte, scias, is equivalent
to the combination sts in last said, first song, pronounced
together rapidly. The s in a word beginning with sc may
be sounded with the end of the preceding word, if that
word ends in a vowel, as mis-cias for mi scias.

d. The n and g are pronounced separately in the com-
bination ng, in such words as lingvo, angulo, producing the
sound of ng heard in linger, not that in singer.

e. Each of two similar letters is clearly sounded, as inter-
rilato, ellasi, like inter-relate, well-laid.

SYLLABLES.

7. Each word contains as many syllables as it has
vowels and diphthongs. The division of syllables within
a word is as follows:

a. A single consonant goes with the following vowel, as
pa-no, be-la, a-e-ro.

b. A consonant followed by 1 or r (which are liquids)
goes with the 1 or r, as in ta-blo, a-kra, a-gra-bla.

c. Otherwise, the syllable division is made before the
last consonant of the group, as sus-pek-ti, sank-ta, deks-
tra.

d. Prefixes are separated from the words to which they

4 LESSON II. [§§8-11

are attached, as dis-meti, mal-akra, and compound words
are divided into their component parts, as cef-iirbo, sun-
ombrelo.

ACCENT.
8. Words of more than one syllable are accented upon
the syllable before the last, as ta-blo, a-gra-bla, sus-pek-ti.

WORDS FOR PRACTICE.

Q. (To be pronounced aloud, and correctly accented)
Afero, trairi, najbaro, aero, hodiau, pacienco, centono,
fiielo, ec, samideano, treege, obei, obeu, Etiropo, gvidi,
^ojo, fiiujn, justa, guste, jugi, jaiido, lingvo, knabo, larga,
pagi, kvieteco, ekzeraplo,' ellerni, fojo, krajono, forrajdi,
kuirejo, cevalejo, sankteco, scio, nescio, edzo, meze, duo-
bla, §ipo, sargi, poso, svingi, sklavo, palaj, safajo, atmos-
fero, monaho, geometrio, laiidi, vasta, eksplodi, sen6esa,
sensencajo, malluma, arbaranoj, mango, fresa, aiiskulti,
daiiri.

LESSON II.
NOUNS.

10. Words which are the names of persons or things are
called nouns. The ending, or final letter, of nouns in
Esperanto is o:

knabo, boy. porno, apple.

cevalo, horse. tablo, table.

THE ARTICLE.

11. The definite article is la, the, as la knabo, the boy,
la cevalo, the horse, la tablo, the table, la porno, the apple.
In Enghsh there is an indefinite article "a, an," for the
singular, but none for the plural. Esperanto has no indefi-

§§12-15] LESSON II. 6

nite article for either singular or plural. Therefore knabo
may mean boy, or a J)oy, pomo may mean apple or an
apple.

ADJECTIVES

12. A word used with a noun (expressed or understood)
to express a quality or characteristic is called an adjective.
The ending of adjectives in Esperanto is a:

bela, beautiful. granda, large.

flava, yellow. forta, strong.

ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES.

13. An adjective is said to modify a noun whose quality
it expresses. When directly preceding or following its
noun, it is called an attributive adjective:

la granda £evalo, the large horse. floro flava, a yellow flower.
bela birdo, a beautiful bird. forta knabo, a strong boy.

PRESENT TENSE OF THE VERB.

14. Words which express action or condition are called
verbs. When representifig an act or condition as a fact,
and dealing with the present time, they are said to be in
the present tense. The ending of all Esperanto verbs in
the present tense is -as:

kuras, runs, is running. brilas, shines, is shining.

flugas, flies, is flying. dormas, sleeps, is sleeping.

15. The yjerson or thing whose action or condition the
verb expresses is called the subject of the verb:

La suno brilas, the sun shines (is shining), subject: suno.
Knabo kuras, a boy runs {is running), subject: knabo.

6 LESSON II. [§16

VOCABULARX.

(To be memorized in this and in all following lessons.)

bela, beautiful. kaj, and.

birdo, bird. kantas, sings, is singing.

blanka, white. knabo, boy.

bona, good. kuras, runs, is running.

brilas, shines, is shining. la, the.

£evalo, horse. luno, moon.

dormas, sleeps, is sleeping. marias, walks, is walking.

flava, yellow. porno, apple.

floro, flower. suno, sun.

flugas, flies, is flying. tablo, table.

forta, strong. violo, violet.

granda, large. viro, man.

READING LESSON.

1. Bona viro. 2. La granda tablo. 3. Blanka floro.
4. Flava birdo. 5. La bela birdo kantas^ 6. ^orta
knabo kuras. 7. La bona viro marsas. 8. La bela fievalo
kuras. 9. La suno brilas. 10. Birdo flugas kaj knabo
kuras. 11. Cevalo blanka marsas. 12. La bela luno
brilas. 13. La knabo kantas kaj la viro dormas. 14.
Bela granda pomo. 15. La bona knabo kantas. 16. La
granda 6evalo dormas. 17. La suno brilas kaj la luno
brilas. 18. Granda forta tablo. 19. Violo flava. 20. La
bona flava pomo.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. A beautiful flower. 2. A good large table. 3. A
yellow violet and a white violet. 4. The moon is-shining
(shines). 5. The good boy is-walking (walks). 6. The
beautiful yellow bird is-flying (flies). 7. The strong man
is-sleeping (sleeps). 8. The white bird is-singing (sings).

§§16-19] LESSON III. 7

9. A strong horse runs, and a man walks. 10. The sun
shines, and the boy is-singing (sings). 11. The large yel-
low apple. 12. An apple large and good.

LESSON III.
THE PLURAL NUMBER.

i6. The plural number of nouns, that is, the form which
indicates more than one person or thing, is made by adding
-j * to the noun, as viroj, men, from viro, man ; tabloj,
tables, from tabic, table.

17. An adjective modifying a plural noun agrees with it
in number, being given the plural form by the addition of
the ending -j.* An adjective modifying two or more
nouns used together is of course given the plural form :

bonaj viroj, good men.
grandaj cevaloj, large horses.

belaj birdo kaj floro (for bela birdo kaj bela floro), beautiful bird
and (beautiful) flower.

18. The article is invariable, that is, does not change in
form when used with plural nouns, as la viro, the man, la
viroj, the men. The verb is also invariable in form'

La viroj marlas, the men walk, the men are walking.

La suno kaj la luno brilas, the sun and the moon are shining.

La viro estas, the man is.

La viroj estas, the men are.

PREDICATE ADJECTIVE AND NOUN.

19. When the adjective is a part of that which is told or
predicated of the subject of the verb, as when used with

* -oj is pronounced like oy in boy, -aj like ai in aisle. See 5.

8 i^ESsoN HI. [§§20-21

the verbs " to be," "to seem," etc., it is caUed a predicate

adjective:

La birdo estas bela, the bird is beautiful.
La knabo sajnas bona, the boy seems good.
La viroj estas fortaj, the men are strong.

20. A noun may a] so be used as part of the predicate,
and is then called a predicate noun:

Violoj estas floroj, violets are flowers.

La kolombo estas birdo, the dove is a bird.

21. Predicate nouns and adjectives agree in number
with the word or words with which they are in predicate
relation ;

Rozoj estas beiaj, roses are beautiful.

La knabo kaj la viro sajnas fortaj, the boy and the man seem strong.

Vocabulary.

alta, high, tall. kolombo, dove.

arbo, tree. kusas, lies, is lying, lie.

cambro, room. longa, long.

domo, house. rozo, rose.

en, in. ruga, red.

estas, is, are. sego, chair.

folio, leaf. sidas, sits, sit, is sitting.

freSa, fresh. sur, on.

^ardeno, garden. sajnas, seems, seem,

kampo, field. verda, green.

READING LESSON.

1. La alta viro estas en la gardeno. 2. Blanka cevalo
estas en la kampo. 3. Belaj birdoj sidas sur la verda arbo.
4. Ija bona] knaboj estas en la domo. 5. La fiambroj en la
bela domo estas grandaj. 6. Fresaj floroj kusas sur la
tablo. 7. La violoj en la kampo estas belaj. 8. Lalunokaj

LESSON" IV. 9

la suno sajnas grandaj. 9. La kolomboj estas belaj birdoj.
10. Ija knaboj sajnas fortaj. 11. Rugaj pomoj estas sur
la tablo en la fiambro. 12. La fortaj viroj sidas sur segoj
en la longa fiambro. 13. I^a arboj estas altaj kaj verdaj.

14. La kolomboj sur la arboj kantas. 15. Fortaj cevaloj
marsas kaj kuras en la verdaj kampoj. 16. La knaboj
dormas en la granda domo. 17. Rugaj, flavaj, kaj verdaj
folioj estas en la gardeno. 18. Longa tablo estas en la
domo. 19. Belaj birdoj flugas kaj kantas en la kampo.
20. Fresaj rozoj sajnas belaj. 21. La folioj estas verdaj
kaj rugaj.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. The trees in the garden are tall and green. 2. The
rooms in the house are long. 3. The flowers on the table
are red, yellow and white. 4. The leaves are long and
green. 5. The men are-sitting (sit) on chairs in the garden.
6. In the garden are yellow roses. 7 . The birds in the field
are doves. 8. The boys in the room in the house seem tall.
9. Fresh violets are beautiful flowers. 10. The horses in
the green fields seem strong. 11. Doves are-singing (sing)
in the garden. 12. The men in the large house sleep. 13.
The house is long and high, and the rooms in the house are
large. 14. Red and yellow apples lie on the big table.

15. Green leaves are on the trees in the large garden.

LESSON IV.

TRANSITIVE VERBS.

22. The verbs so far given have been intransitive verbs,
expressing a state or an action limited to the subject, and
not immediately affecting any other person or thing, as
la knabo kuras, the boy runs. On the other hand a transi-

10 LESSON IV. [§§23-26

tive verb expresses an act of the subject upon some person
or thing; as, la knabo trovas ,the boy finds .

THE ACCUSATIVE CASE.

23. The person or thing acted upon is called the direct
object of a transitive verb, and is given the ending -n.
This is called the accusative ending, and the word to which
it is attaciied is said to be in the accusative case:*

La viro havas segon, the man has a chair.
La knabo trovas florojn, the boy finds flowers.

24. An attributive adjective modifying a noun in the
accusative case is made to agree in case, by addition of the
same accusative ending -n.* This prevents any doubt as
to which of two or more nouns in a sentence is modified
by the adjective, and permits of variation in the order of
the words:

La knabo trovas belan floron, the boy finds a beautiful flower.
Florojn belajn la viro havas, the man has beautiful flowers.
La viro havas grandan segon, the man has a large chair,
Rugan rozon la knabo havas, the boy has a red rose.

25. A predicate adjective or noun (19) is never in the
accusative case, nor is tlie accusative ending ever attached
to the article, which is invariable as stated in 18.

THE CONJUNCTION KAJ.

26. In the expression both . . . and . . , the conjunc-
tion kaj is used for both words, being merely repeated:

La viro kaj mar§as kaj kuras, the man both walks and runs.
La 6evalo estas kaj granda kaj forta, the horse is both large and
strong.

* The ending -n follows the ending -j, if the word to be put in the accusative
case is in the plural number.

§27] LESSON IV. 11

La knabo havas kaj rozojn kaj violojn, the boy has both roses and

violets.
Kaj la knabo kaj la viro estas altaj, both the boy and the man are tall.

THE NEGATIVE TfE.
27. The negative word meaning "hot" when forming
part of a sentence, and " no " when used as an answer to a
question, is ne. When used as a sentence-negative, it
usually immediately precedes the verb. For emphatic
negation of some other word than the verb, ne may pre-
cede that word:

Violoj ne estas rugaj, violets are not red.
La viroj ne sidas sur se^oj, the men are-not-sitting on chairs.
La kolombo kantas, ne flugas, the dove is-singing, not flying.
La domo estas blanka, ne verda, the house is white, not green.

VOCABULABY.

apud, near, in the vicinity of. koloro, color.

benko, bench. larga, wide, broad.

branco, branch. mangas, eat, eats.

diversa, various. mola, soft.

felica, happy. nigra, black.

frukto, fruit. ne, not, no.

havas, have, has. rompas, break, breaks.

herbo, grass. sed, but.

ili, they. trovas, find, finds,

kolektas, gather, collect. vidas, see, sees.

READING LESSON.

1. La knaboj ne estas en la 6ambro en la blanka domo.
2. Ili estas en la granda gardeno. 3. La gardeno sajnas kaj
longa kaj larga. 4. La felicaj knaboj vidas la belan ^ar-
denon. 5. Ili vidas florojn apud alta arbo. 6. La floroj
havas diversajn kolorojn. 7. La knaboj kolektas kaj
rugajn kaj fiavajn florojn. 8. Sed ili ne trovas fruldojn en
la gardeno. 9. Florojn blankajn ili ne vidas. 10. La alta

12 LESSON V. [§28

arbo havas verdajn foliojn sur la branfioj. 11. La knaboj
rompas brancon, kaj kolektas la fruktojn. 12. Hi vidas
florojn sur la brancoj, sed la florojn ill ne kolektas. 13.
La knaboj ne sidas sur benkoj en la gardeno, sed kusas sur
la mola herbo. 14. La kolomboj sidas sur la arboj, kaj
ili estas felicaj. 15. La knaboj vidas la belajn birdojn.

16. Fortaj nigraj cevaloj mangas la herbon en la kampo.

17. La knaboj vidas la cevalojn, sed la cevaloj ne vidas la
knabojn. 18. La cevaloj ne dormas, ili mangas 19. La
fresa herbo estas verda kaj mola. 20. Felicaj estas kaj la
knaboj kaj la fievaloj. 21. La pomo estas bona frukto

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Green leaves are on the trees. 2. The boys break
branches and gather the apples. 3. They are near the tall
tree in the garden. 4. They find leaves on the tree,
but they do not see the fruit. 5. The house is long, broad
and high. 6. The rooms in the house are both long and
wide. 7. The men have strong black horses. 8. The
horses eat the fresh green grass in the field. 9. The men
sit on benches in the garden. 10. The boys do not sleep,
but they lie on the soft grass. 11. They see both the birds
and the flowers, and they seem happy. 12. The flowers
have various colors, but the grass is green. 13. The doves
are not sitting on the tree, they are flying near the trees.

14. Beautiful red roses are lying on the table in the house.

15. The large red apples are near the yellow roses.

LESSON V.

THE COMPLEMENTARY INFINITIVE.

28. The infinitive is a form of the verb which expresses
merely the general idea of the action or condition indicated,

§§29-31] LESSON V. 13

and has some of the characteristics of g, noun. The ending
of the infinitive is -i, as kuri, to run, esti, to he, havi, to have.

29. An infinitive used to complete the meaning of an-
other verb, serving as a direct object to a transitive verb,
is called a complementary infinitive. If the complementary
infinitive is from a transitive verb, it may itself have a
direct object:

La knabo volas kuri, the hoy wishes to run.

Birdoj Satas kanti, birds like to sing.

La knabo volas havi Cevalon, the boy wishes to have a horse.

Ill volas trovi florojn, they wish to find flowers.

INTERROGATION.

30. An interrogative sentence is one which asks a ques-
tion. Unless some directly interrogative word (as " who,"
"when," "why," etc.) is used, the sentence is rendered
interrogative by use of the word cu. This interrogative
particle is placed at the beginning of a sentence, the words
of which are left in the same order as for a statement.
Since there is no inversion of order, there is no necessity
for a word like English "do" or " does," to introduce the
verb :

6u la knabo estas bona? Is the boy good?
Cu ill havas florojn? Have they flowers?

Cu la kolomboj kantas? Do the doves sing? {Are the doves sing-
ing?)

THE CONJUNCTION NEK.

31. In the expression neither . . . nor . . . , the con-
junction nek is used for both words. Since an adjective
modifier of two or more words connected by nek must
necessarily modify them separately, the adjective remains
in the singular number:

Hi nek marSas nek kuras, they neither walk nor run.

14 LESSON V. [§31

La viro havas nek domon nek gardenon, the man has neither a

house nor a garden.
Nek la rozo nek la violo estas verda, neither the rose nor the violet

is green.

VOCABULAKY.

(Verbs will hereafter be quoted in the infinitive form.)

bruna, brown. matura, ripe.

£erizo, cherry. Mario, Mary.

6u, (30). nek, neither, nor.

dol£a, sweet. persiko, peach,

gusto, taste. jes, yes.

U, it. preferi, to prefer.

Gertrudo, Gertrude. §ati, to like.

knabino, girl. voli, to wish.

READING LESSON.

1. Cu persiko estas ruga? 2. Jes, gi estas kaj ruga kaj
dol6a. 3. Cu cerizoj estas brunaj ? 4. Ne, ili estas nek
brunaj nek nigraj, sed flavaj. 5. Cu la pomo estas frukto?
Jes, gi estas bona frukto. 6. Cu la viro kaj la knabo havas
pomojn? 7. Ne, ili havas nek pomojn nek persikojn.
8. Cu Mario havas la maturan frukton? 9. Mario kaj
Gertrudo havas la frukton. 10. Ili estas en la domo, kaj
mangas la maturan frukton. 11. La persikoj havas dolcan
guston. 12. La knabinoj volas havi florojn, sed la knaboj
preferas kolekti diversajn fruktojn. 13. Ili volas trovi
maturajn fierizojn kaj flavajn persikojn. 14. La cerizoj
havas belan rugan koloron. 15. La persikoj sajnas molaj
kaj bonaj. 16. Mario rompas branfion, kaj vidas fierizojn
sur la bran&oj. 17. Gertrudo estas feli6a, kaj volas havi
la belan frukton. 18. Gertrudo estas alta, bela knabino.
19. Mario satas fierizojn. 20. La knaboj kaj knabinoj
sidas sur la verda herbo, kaj mangas la fierizojn. 21. Ili
ne volas mangi pomojn, ili preferas la dolcajn 6erizojn.
22. La f olioj apud la 6erizoj estas nek largaj nek longaj .

P2| LESSON VI. 15

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Have the girls beautiful flowers? 2. No, they have
fresh fruit. 3. The boys do not wish to gather flowers.
4. They prefer to break the branches, and find the sweet
cherries. 5. Gertrude wishes to eat apples, but Mary has
neither apples nor peaches. 6. Do the girls like to sit in
the house and eat fruit? 7. Yes, they like to sit in the
house, but they prefer to walk in the field. 8. Are ripe
peaches brown? 9. No, they are red and yellow. 10. Has
the peach a sweet taste? 11. Do the girls see the beautiful
black horses in the fields? 12. Yes, they see the horses,
but the horses seem not to see the girls. 13. Mary sits on
the soft green grass, and eats ripe fruit.

LESSON VI.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

32. Words which stand in the place of nouns, as "you,"
"he," "who," "which," are called pronouns. Pronouns
referring to the person speaking (/, we), the person ad-
dressed (you, thou), or the person or thing spoken of (he,
she, it, they), are called personal pronouns. They are con-
sidered singular or plural, according to whether they refer
to one or more persons. Since the meaning of such pro-
nouns indicates the number, no plural ending is ever
attached to them. The personal pronouns are:

Singular. Plural.
First person: mi, / (me), ni, we (us).
Second person: vi, you.* vi, you.
Third person: li, he (him).

§i, she (her), ili, they (them).
gi, it.

*iThere is another pronoun ci, thou, for the second person singular, used in
solemn style, as in the Bible, in poetry, and also for intimate or familiar ad-
dress when desired, like German du, French tu, etc.

16 LESSON YI. [§§33-34

AGREEMENT WITH PRONOUNS.

33. Nouns in predicate relation with pronouns, or ad-
jectives modifying such pronouns, are made; to agree with
them in number:

Ni estas bonaj kaj felicaj, we are good and happy.

Rozoj estas floroj, ili ne estas fruktoj, roses are flowers, they are not

fruits.
Gertrude, vi estas bona, Gertrude, you are good.
Knabinoj, cu vi estas felicaj? Girls, are you happy?

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB.

34. Any pronoun may serve as the subject of a verb.
The combination of the verb with eacli of the personal pro-
nouns in succession for its subject, is called the conjuga-
tion of the verb. Following is the conjugation of the
present tense of esti, and of vidi :

mi estas, / am. mi vidas, / see.

vi estas, you are. vi vidas, you see.

li (si, fi) estas, he {she, it) is. li (si, gi) vidas, he (she, it) sees.

ni estas, we are. ni vidas, we see.

vi estas, you (plural) are. vi vidas, you (plural) see.

ili estas, they are. ili vidas, they see.

VOOABULAEY.

al, to, toward. hodiau, today.

Arturo, Arthur. kudri, to sew.

ail, or (nu . . au . ., either . .or . .) Roberto, Robert.

car, because. skui, to shake.

doni, to give. stari, to stand.

fali, to fall. sub, under, beneath.

fenestro, window. virino, woman.

READING LESSON.

1. Knaboj, 6u vi volas sidi en la domo, aii en la gardeno?
2. Ni preferas sidi hodiau en la gardeno, sub la granda

§34] LESSON VI. 17

arbo. 3. Cu vi havas pomojn, au cerizojn? 4. Ni havas
nek pomojn nek cerizojn, sed ni havas dolfiajn persikojn.
5. Arturo donas al vi la maturajn persikojn, car li satas
kolekti frukton. 6. Arturo, cu vi rompas la brancojn?
7. Ne, sed mi skuas brancon, kaj la persikoj falas. 8. Mi
staras sub la arbo, kaj kolektas la dolcan frukton. 9. La
frukton mi donas al Mario kaj Gertrudo. 10. Mi volas doni
persikon al Heleno, sed hodiau si estas en la domo. 11. Si
sidas apud la fenestro kaj kudras. 12. Si preferas kudri,
kaj "^'olas nek marsi nek sidi eu la gardeno. 13. Kaj si kaj
la virino apud si volas kudri hodiaii. 14. Hi estas felicaj,
car ili vidas la birdojn en la arbo apud la fenestro. 15. La
birdoj estas kolomboj, kaj sidas sur la arbo. 16. Sub la
arboj en la kampo staras cevaloj, kaj ili mangas laverdan
. molan herbon. 17. Ni donas pomojn al ili, car ili satas
pomojn. 18. Ni estas felicaj, car ni havas belajn persi-
kojn maturajn kaj bonajn. 19. Roberto, vi estas alta, sed
vi, knabinoj, ne estas altaj.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Does Arthur break the branch and gather the ap-
ples? 2. No, he shakes the branch, and the apples fall.
3. They are ripe and sweet. 4. Robert, do you wish to
stand beneath the tree? 5. No, I do not wish to stand
under it, but near it. 6. I wish to give both the peaches
and the apples to the woman. 7. She is sitting in the house,
near the window. 8. Mary is sitting in (on) a chair near
her. 9. Both Mary and the woman are sewing. 10.
They prefer to sew, and do not wish to walk in the garden
to-day. 11. They are happy because they like to sew. 12.
Tliey do not wish to gather flowers, or walk, or see the birds.
13. They have neither apples nor peaches, but they do not
wish to eat. 14. They give the fruit to the boys and girls.

18 LESSON" VII. [§§35-3?

LESSON VII.

THE PAST TENSE.

35. The past tense of the verb expresses an action which
took place in past time, or a condition which existed in
past time. The ending of this tense is -is, as kuris, ran,
flugls, flew, brilis, shone. The conjugation of esti and also
of vidi in the past tense is as follows:

mi estis, I was. mi vidis, / saw.

vi estis, you were. vi vidis, you saw.

li (si, gi) estis, he {she, it) was. li (M, ^) vidis, he (she, it) saw.

ni estis, we were. ni vidis, we saw.

vi estis, you (plural) were. vi vidis, you (plural) saw.

ill estis, they were. ili vidis, they saw.

PREPOSITIONS.

36. A preposition is a word like "in," "on," placed be-
fore a noun or pronoun to indicate some relation between
this and another word. The preposition is said to govern
the noun or pronoun, which is called its complement.
In English, the complement of a preposition seems to be
put in the accusative case if it is a pronoun, but to remain
unchanged in form if it is a noun . In Esperanto the prepo-
sition does not affect the form of the word governed, which
remains in the nominative case:

La arbo estas en la ^ardeno, the tree is in the garden.

Bonaj pomoj estas sur gi, good apples are on it.

Mi donis cerizojn al li, / gave cherries to him.

La knabo estas apud mi, the hoy is near me.

Sub la arbo staris £evalo, under the tree stood a horse.

ACCUSATIVE CASE OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

37. For use as the object of a verb, any pronoun may be

§37] LESSON VII. 19

put in the accusative case by addition of the accusative
ending -n (23) :

La viro vidis vin kaj min, the man saw you and me.
Li vidis ilin kaj nin, he saw them and us.
Mi vidis nek lin nek Sin, / saw neither him nor her.
Ni volas havi |in, we wish to have it.

VOCABULABY.

agrabla, pleasant, agreeable. luma, light (not dark).

bildo, picture. muro, wall.

blua, blue. nun, now.

danki, to thank. pianko, floor.

de, from. pordo, door.

diri, to say. rigardi, to look (at).

infano, child. tapiSo, carpet.

interesa, interesting. tra, through.

READING LESSON.

1. Hodiaii la knaboj kaj knabinoj estas en la granda
domo. 2. Hi staras apud la tablo, en agrabla luma 6am-
bro. 3. Gi havas altajn largajn fenestrojn. 4. Sub la
tablo kaj segoj, mola tapiso kusas sur la pianko. 5. La
tapi§o havas belajn kolorojn, rugan, bluan, flavan, kaj
verdan. 6. Virino marsis tra la pordo, kaj staris apud la
tablo. 7. Si havis interesajn bildojn, kaj donis ilin al la
knaboj kaj la knabinoj. 8. Si diris "Cu vi volas rigardi la
bildojn?" 9. "Jes, ni dankas vin," diris la infanoj, kaj
§i donis al ili la bildojn. 10. Granda bildo falls de la tablo,
sed Arturo nun havas gin. 11. Li donas gin al Mario, si
dankas lin, kaj donas gin al Roberto. 12. Ih volis doni
gin al Gertrudo, sed si diris "Ne, mi dankas vin, mi ne
satas rigardi bildojn." 13. Si marsis de la tablo al la
fenestro kaj diris "Mi preferas kudri." 14. Si volis sidi en
granda sego apud la fenestro. 15. La virino rigardis sin

20 LESSON vm. [§§38-39

kaj diris "Mi donis la bildojn al vi, knaboj kaj knabinoj,"
6ar ili estas interesaj bildoj. 16. Gertrudo diris "Vi estas
bona al ni, sed mi volas sidi apud la pordo au la fenestro,
17. Mi kolektis dolcajn violojn en la gardeno, kaj nun mi
volas rigardi la dolcajn florojn, kaj kudri."

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Do the boys and girls wish to be good? 2. They
gathered fresh flowers and gave them to the woman. 3.
The happy children were in the garden, but now they are
in the house. 4. The rooms in the house are light, because
they have large wide windows. 5. The doors in the room
are wide and high. 6. The carpets on the floor seem soft,
and have various beautiful colors. 7. A large strong table
stands near the door. 8. We can sit near the table and
look through the windows. 9. Gertrude is-looking-at the
various pictures. 10. She looks-at them, and seems to be
happy. 11. She gave a picture to me and I thanked her.
12. Helen walked near the table and shook it. 1.3. Arthur
did not see the pictures because they were lying on the
floor. 14. He looked-at the pictures on the wall, but they
are neither interesting nor beautiful. 15. Robert looked
through the window, and saw us in the pleasant garden.

LESSON VIII.
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.

38. A pronoun which refers to the same person or thing
as the subject of the verb in the sentence, but is used in
some other relation than subject of that verb, is said to be
used reflexively, or to be a reflexive pronoun.

39. The first and second personal pronouns, mi, ni, and

§40] LESSON VIII. 21

vi, (ci) are used for the reflexive pronouns of the first and
second persons. There can be no ambiguity, since words
such as "me, myself, us, ourselves," can refer to no one else
than the person or persons speaking; while words such as
" you, yourself, yourselves (thee, thyself)," can refer to no
one else than the person or persons addressed:

Mi vidas min, / see myself.

Mi diris al mi, I said to myself.

Ni havas tapison sub ni, we have a carpet under us.

Ni amuzis nin, we amused ourselves.

(Ci trovas domon apud ci, thou findest a house near thee.)

Vi diras al vi, you say to yourself (yourselves).

Vi amuzas vin, you amuse yourself (yourselves).

40. When the verb is in the third person, a pronoun of
the third person, used otherwise than as the subject, might
or might not refer to the subject of that verb. For exam-
ple, "He sees a bird near him," may mean that the subject
sees a bird near himself, or near another person. If such
a pronoun of the third person is intended to refer to the
subject of the verb, Esperanto uses a special reflexive
pronoun si (accusative sin), which means him{self), her
(self), it(self), t.hem (selves), according to the gender and
number of the verb : *

Li amuzas sin, he amuses himself.

Arturo vidis birdon apud si, Arthur saw a bird near him(self).

§i trovas floron apud si, she finds a flower near her(self).

Mario trovis sin sur blua tapiso, Mary found herself on a blue

carpet.
La tapiso havas diversajn kolorojn en si, the carpet has various

colors in it(self).
La birdo kasas sin sub la folioj, the bird hides itself under the leaves.
Hi amuzas sin, they amuse themselves.

* From the very fact that si always refers to the subject of the verb, it is
evident that si can never itself be used as subject or part of the =iubject of the
verb.

22 LESSON VIII. [§4l

La viroj havas se^ojn apud si, the men have chairs near them(selves) .
La virinoj trovas florojn apud si, the women find flowers near them-

La arboj havas cerizojn sur si, the trees have cherries on them(selves).
Sub si la infanoj trovis molan tapison, under them(selves) the children
found a soft carpet.

REFLEXIVE VERBS.

41. A verb having a reflexive pronoun for its direct ob-
ject is sometimes called a reflexive verb, from the fact that
some languages have had or still have a special reflexive or
middle form of the verb, to express an act of the subject
on or for itself,, or they have certain verbs whose use is
chiefly or exclusively reflexive.* The conjugation of a
verb-reflexively is therefore as follows:

mi amuzas min (or mi min amuzas), / amuse myself.

vi amuzas vin (or vi vin amuzas), you amuse yourself.

li (si, gi) amuzas sin (or sin amuzas), he (she, it) amuses him (her,

it) self.
ni amuzas nin (or ni nin amuzas), we amuse ourselves.
vi amuzas vin (or vi vin amuzas), you amuse yourselves.
ili amuzas sin (or ili sin amuzas), they amuse themselves.

VOCABULAKY.

Alfredo, Alfred. komenci, to begin.

amuzi, to amuse. laiidi, to praise.

antau, before, in front of. legi, to read.

aparteni, to belong. libro, book.

griza, gray. perdi, to lose.

iri, to go. skatolo, small box or case.

Johano, John. strato, street.

ka§i, to hide, to conceal. si, himself, etc. (40).

*As Greek erpawovro, they turned themselves; Latin exerceor, I exercise myself,
vescor, I eat (I feed myself); German ich hilte m'ch, I beware (I gvard myself);
Spanish me alegro, or alegrome, I rejoice (/ gladden myself); French' il s'arrete,
he halts {he stops himself).

§41] LESSON VIII. 23

READING LESSON.

1. Johano kaj Alfredo amuzis sin en la gardeno. 2.
Johano kasis sin, kaj Alfredo trovis Johanon. 3. Alfredo
sin kasis en alta arbo, kaj Johano trovis Alberton. 4.
Mario kaj Gertrudo sin kasis apud la floroj, kaj la knaboj
trovis la knabinojn. 5. La knabinoj ne volas perdi sin en
laagrablakampo. 6. Johano komencis amuzi sin en luma
cambro en la domo. 7. La muro havas interesajn bildojn
sur si. 8. Tra la fenestro antau si Johano rigardas la
virojn kaj la virinojn sur la strato. 9. Li havas molan
grizan tapison sub si, kaj ne volas se^on. 10. Li kaj Al-
fredo volis iri al la strato kaj amuzi sin. IL Hi marsis al
la pordo, kaj trovis rugan skatolon antau si. 12. En la
skatolo estis libro, kaj Johano diris al si "La libro ne apar-
tenas al mi." 13. Li diris al Alfredo "Car ni trovis gin,
mi volas legi la libron." 14. Virino antau pordo komencis
rigardi la knabojn, kaj ili diris al si "Cu la libro apartenas
al vi? Ni trovis gin en skatolo." 15. La virino diris "Jes,
hi perdis gin, kaj mi dankas vin, car vi donas al mi la ska-
tolon kaj la libron." 16. Si iris al la strato, kaj la knaboj
iris al la domo.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. The book in the gray box does not belong to me.
2. I found it in front of me, near the door. 3. You began
to praise yourselves, but I do not praise myself. 4. They
hid themselves, and I stood near them. 5. The birds sit
on the tree, because it has ripe cherries on it. 6. Alfred
amused himself on the street, but we like to amuse our-
selves in the house. 7. The trees have good fruit on them.
8. She found herself in a beautiful light room. 9. The
carpet on the floor had various colors in it, and the high

24: LESSON IX. [§§42-43

wall had pictures on it. 10. The pictures had boys and
girls in them. 11. The book belongs to her, but it fell
from the box. 12. The table has red and blue and yellow
flowers on it. 13. Did you see the doves near the flowers
in front of (before) you? 14. The birds saw the fruit on
the tree in front of them, and flew to the branches. 15. I
sat on the bench in the garden, and began to read an inter-
esting book. 16. They hid themselves in the leaves and
began to sing. 17. The child is in a pleasant room.

LESSON IX.
LIMITATION OF THE THIRD PERSONAL PRONOUN.

42. Since there is a special reflexive pronoun of the third
person, the third personal pronouns, 11, si, gi, ili, when
used otherwise than as subjects, never refer to the subject
of the verb, but always to some other person or thing:

La knabo laiidas lin, the hoy praises him (another person).

§i donas porno jn al li, she gives apples to her (to another person).

La birdo vidis gin, the bird saw it (something else than the bird).

La knabo j kasis ilin, the boys hid them (other persons or things).

Ili trovis ilin apud si, they found them (other persons or things)

near them(selves).
La birdoj flugis al ili, the birds flew to them.

POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES.

43. Words like "my," "his," "your," which indicate
ownership or some possessive relation, are called possessive
adjectives* Possessive adjectives are formed from the
personal pronouns by adding the adjective ending -a, as
mia, my, via, your (cia, thy), lia, his, sia, her, gia, its, nia,

* Sometimes these words are called possessive pronouns, although really they
are not pronouns at all, but pronominal adjectives with a possessive meaning.

§§44-45] LESSON IX. 25

our, via, your (plural), ilia, their. The limitation in the use
of the third personal pronouns (42) is also true of the ad-
jectives derived from them:

Mia domo kaj miaj gardenoj estas grandaj, my house and my gardens

are large.
Johano sidas sur via se^o, John is sitting in your chair.
Li havas lian cevalon, he has his (another person's) horse.
Cu vi legis §iajn librojn? Did you read her books?

44. Reflexive possessive adjectives, like the reflexive
pronoun, refer to the subject of the verb in the sentence.
For the first and second persons, they are the same as the
personal possessive adjectives. The reflexive possessive
adjective of the third person is sia, his, her, its, their,
formed by adding the ending -a to the reflexive pronoun
si:

Mi havas miajn librojn sur mia tabic, / have my hooks on my table.

Johano perdis siajn librojn, John lost his (John's) books.

Mario estas en sia cambro, Mary is in her room.

La birdoj flugis al sia arbo, the birds flew to their tree.

PRONOMINAL USE OP POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES.

45. Possessive adjectives may be used predicatively, as
"the book is mine," or may modify some word or words
not expressed, as "mine are large." Instead of having
special forms, like English mine, yours, hers, etc., Esperanto
uses the regular possessive adjectives preceded by the
article:

La granda libro estas la mia, the large book is mine.

La via estas granda, la miaj estas belaj, yours is large, mine are

beautiful.
Hi havas la sian, sed ne la lian, they have theirs, but not his.
La iliaj Sajnas esti bonaj, theirs seem to be good.

26 LESSON IX. [§4o

Vocabulary.

diro, saying, remark. mango, meal,

§is, as far as, up to, down to. nesto, nest.

hierau, yesterday. pasero, sparrow.

juna, young. patro, father.

kapti, to catch, to seize. post, after, behind.

kato, cat. surprizi, to surprise.

kolera, angry. teni, to hold, to keep.

lavi, to wash. vizago, face.

READING LESSON.

1. Hierau mi perdis mian grizan katon. 2. Ilia kato
kaptis nian birdon. 3. Via kolera diro surprizis mian
patron. 4. Cu la granda kampo apartenas al sia patro?
5. Ne, gi ne estas la lia. 6. La lia estas bela, sed mi pre-
feras la mian. 7. Cu vi satas vian libron aii la ilian? 8. .
Li havas nek siajn cevalojn nek la iliajn. 9. La knabinoj
sajnas esti koleraj. 10. Tli komencis legi siajn librojn.
IL La viro kaptis kaj tenis siajn fievalojn, sed li ne trovis
iliajn cevalojn. 12. Sia libro kusas sur la planko, post sia
sego. 13. Si ne trovis ilian libron, sed la junaj infanoj
trovis la nian.

LA KATO KAJ LA PASERO.

Griza kato iris de la domo ^is la strato. Gi vidis paseron
antatt si, kaj volis mangi gin. La kato staris post granda
arbo, kaj kaptis la paseron. La pasero diris " Bona kato
lavas sin antau sia mango, sed vi ne lavis vian vizagon."
5 La interesa diro surprizis la katon. Ija kato ne tenis la
paseron, -sed komencis lavi sian vizagon. La pasero flugis
de la kato gis la arbo. La kolera kato diris "Mi perdis
mian.mangon, 6ar mi komencis lavi min antati la mango!"
Nun la katoj ne lavas sin antaii la mangoj . Hi havas siajn

§46] LESSON X. 27

mangojn, kaj post la mangoj ill lavas la vizagojn. Laio
paseroj ne surprizas ilin nun, sed ill tenas la paserojn.
La katoj estas felicaj, sed la paseroj ne estas felicaj.
La junaj paseroj volas flugi al la nestoj en la arboj.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. The boys are not in their (own) house, but they are in
his. 2 Is the large beautiful house yours ? 3. The woman
walked through the door of their house, as far as her room.
4. The room has interesting pictures on its walls. 5. We
praised their flowers yesterday, and they gave them to us.
6. Their books are in their (the books') box. 7. They are
on their (the boys') table. 8. The gray cat was angry be-
cause it did not hold the bird. 9. The sparrow surprised
it, and it commenced to wash its face. 10. The sparrow
wished to fly as far as the tall tree, but the cat held it.
11. The sparrow said "A good cat washes its face, but you
are not a good cat." 12. The sparrow was angry because
the cat seized it and held it. 13. The bird did not lose its
meal, but the angry cat lost its meal. 14. Do you see his
cat or hers? 15. I see both his and hers, but oars is not
in our garden. 16. My father is a tall strong man. 17.
I hke to look at him. 18. The children saw the young
birds in the nest.

LESSON X.

THE ACCUSATIVE OF DIRECTION.

46. When the verb in a sentence expresses motion, the
word indicating the place, person or thing toward which
the motion is directed is given the accusative ending.
This is also true if the word is the complement of any
preposition which does not itself sufficiently indicate mo-

28 LESSON X. [§§47-48

tion in a certain direction. (The prepositions al, to, to-
ward, gis, as far as, tra, through, express motion in tiie di-
rection of their complements, and could not well be used
except in a sentence whose verb expresses motion. Conse-
quently the accusative is not used after any of these three) :

Li iris gardenon, he went to the garden {" gardenward ").

La viro iros Bostonon, the man will go to Boston (" Bostonward ").*

Li estis en la gardeno, kaj kuris en la domon, he was in the garden

and ran into the house.
6i ne estas sur la tablo, fi falis sur la plankon, it is not on the table,

it fell upon the floor.
Ili falis sub la tablon gis la planko, they fell under the table as far as

the floor (direction expressed by whole prepositional phrase).
Mi iris tra la domo en mian cambron, / went through the house into

my room.

THE ARTICLE FOR THE POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE.

47. In many sentences where the possessor is already
sufficiently indicated, English nevertheless uses a pos-
sessive adjective, as in "I wash my face," "he shakes his
head," but on the other hand omits it entirely with certain
words indicating relationship, as in "Brother gave it to
me," etc. In both cases Esperanto uses the article in-
stead of the possessive adjective, unless the fact of pos-
session is to be emphasized:

Mi lavas la vizagon, / wash my face.

Li skuas la kapon, he shakes his head.

La patro estas alta, Father is tall.

Mi donis gin al la patro, I gave it to Father.

APPOSITION.

48. Enghsh often uses the preposition "of" between two
words where no idea of possession really exists, as "the city

*Cf. English *' he went home," " he went homeward," etc.

§48] LESSON X. 29

of Boston." Since nouns used in apposition refer to the
same thing, and are in the same grammatical construction,
Esperanto does not use a preposition:

La urbo Bostono estas granda, the city (of) Boston is large.

Mia amiko Johano estas alta, my friend John is tall.

Cu vi ne konas min, vian amikon? do you not know me, your friend f

VOCABULAKY.

arabo, arab. meti, to put, to place.

baldau, soon, nazo, nose.

Bostono, Boston. nur, only, merely.

frato, brother. pusi, to push.

kamelo, camel. trans, across.

kapo, head. tuta, whole, entire, all.

kolo, neck. urbo, city.

korpo, body. varma, warm.

LA ARABO KAJ LA KAMELO.

Arabo sidis en sia domo en la urbo. Apud domo trans
la strato li vidis kamelon. La kamelo iris trans la straton
gis la pordo, kaj diris al la arabo, "Frato, mi ne estas varma,
mi volas meti nur la nazon en vian varman domon." La
arabo skuis la kapon, sed la kamelo metis la nazon tra 6
la pordo en la fiambron. La kamelo komencis pusi sian
tutan vizagon en la domon. Baldaii li havis la kapon gis
la kolo en la domo. Post la kapo iris la kolo en gin, kaj
baldaii la tuta korpo estis en la domo. La arabo estis
kolera, 6ar li ne volis havi tutan kamelon en sia domo. lo
Li kuris al la kamelo, kaptis lin, tenis lin, kaj diris,
"Frato, vi volis meti nur la nazon en mian domon. La
6ambro ne estas granda sed gi estas la mia, kaj mi pre-
feras sidi en gi." "Via diro estas bona," diris la kamelo,
"via domo ne estas granda, sed gi estas varma, kaj mi is
§atas stari en gi. Mi preferas stari kaj kusi en gi, kaj mi

30 LESSON XI. [§49

donos al vi mian arbon trans la strato. Cu vi ne volas iri
sub la arbon?" Kaj la kamelo pusis la arabon de lia domo
en la straton de la urbo. La kamelo nun trovis sin en
ovarma cambrOj sed la juna arabo staris trans la strato kaj
ne estis varma.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. The cat ran across the street. 2. Across the street it
found a sparrow. 3. It caught the bird, but began to wash
its face, and the sparrow flew to the nest. 4. I went into
the garden as far as the large tree. 5. I did not hold my
book, and it fell upon the floor. 6. It began to fall under
the table, but I seized it. 7. My brother pushed the books
into their box, and put it on the table. 8. We went to the
city of Boston yesterday and into a beautiful house. 9.
The arab shook his head and said, "No." 10. But the
camel commenced to go through the door. 11. His re-
mark did not seem to surprise the camel. 12. The camel
pushed its head and neck, and soon its whole body into the
warm house. 13. It wished to put merely its nose into it.
14. The arab was angry, because it pushed itself into his
house. 15. He said, "Brother, the house is mine, and I do
not wish to have you in it." 16. But soon after the remark,
the whole camel was in the house. 17. He pushed the
young arab into the street. 18. He went across the street
and stood upon the grass under a tree.

LESSON XL
POSSESSIVE CASE OF NOUNS.
49. The preposition de is used to express possession or
connection:

La muroj de la domo, the walls of the house.
La koloroj de la floroj, the colors of the flowers-

§50-62] LESSON XI. '61

La libro de la knabo, the hook of the boy {the boy's book).

Bran£o de la arbo, a branch of the tree.

La gardeno de la viroj, the garden of the men (the men's garden)^

IMPERSONAL VERBS.

50. Verbs with an impersonal or indeterminate subject,
as "it rains," "it is snowing," are called impersonal, be-r
cause there is no actual subject, the word "it" serving
merely as an introductory particle. No such particle is
used with impersonal verbs in Esperanto:

Pluvas, it rains, it is raining.
Wegis hierau, it snowed yesterday.

VERBS PRECEDING THEIR SUBJECTS.

51. When the verb in a sentence precedes its subject,
English often uses an introductory particle, such as
"there," "it." In Esperanto no such particles are needed:

Estas floroj sur la tablo, there are flowers on the table.

Estis Johano, ne Alfredo, en la gardeno, it was John, not Alfred, in

the garden.
Estas domo en la kampo, there is a house in the field.
Estis mi, it was I.

COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS.

52. Words like slvl, kaj, nek, sed, which join words,
word-groups, or sentences together are conjunctions. All
the conjunctions given so far connect words, phrases,* or
sentences of similar rank or kind.

These are called coordinating conjunctions, and the

* A phrase is aword-group forming an expression, but not containing a verb,
as " through the house," " of the man," " before me," etc.

82 LESSOR XI. [§52

words, phrases, or sentences connected by them are said to
be coordinate: *

Cu vi marlas au kuras? (Au connects the verbs.)

Si iris, kaj ni estis felifiaj. (Kaj connects the sentences.)

Nek vi nek mi vidis |in. (The second nek connects the pronouns,

the first being introductory and adverbial.)
Au li afl si perdis la libron. (The second au connects the pronouns,

the first being introductory and adverbial.)
6i falls sur la segon, sed ne sur la plankon. (Sed connects the

phrases.)
Li ne Satis |in. Tamen li tenis gin. (Tamen connects the sentences.)

VOCABULAEY.

akvo, water. porti, to carry.

amiko, friend. rica, rich, wealthy.

ankati, also. sable, sand.

bezoni, to need. sako, sack, bag.

dezerto, desert. seka, dry.

fidela, faithful. tamen, nevertheless.

mono, money. trinki, to drink.

negi, to snow. veni, to come.

pluvi, to rain. vojo, road, way.

LA ARABO EN LA DEZERTO.

Arabo iris trans grandan sekan dezerton. Kamelo, lia
fidela amiko, portis lin. La kamelo ankau portis belajn
tapisojn, 6ar la arabo estis ri6a viro. La arabo ha vis ne nur

* Coordinating conjiinctions may be further classified according to their

meaning;

Aii is disjiTQctive, connecting alternates, and expressing separation.

Kaj is copulative, expressing imion.

Nek is disjimctive, expressing separation and also negation.

Sed is adversative, expressing opposition, contrast, or modification of a previ-
ous statement.

Tamen is adversative, affirming something in spite of a previous objection or
concession.

Do, so, then, consequently, is argumentative, expressing a logical inference or re-
sult in a somewhat conversational manner.

§52j LESSON XI. 33

tapisojn, sed ankau sakojn. En la sakoj estis akvo, tax en
la dezerto nek pluvas nek negas. La viro trinkis akvon, 5
kaj ankatt donis akvon al sia kamelo. La kamelo marMs
kaj marsis, sed ne venis al la domo de la arabo, 6ar ill perdis
la vojon. La suno brills, kaj la sablo de la dezerto sajnis
varma. La arabo ne trovis la vojon, kaj baldaii li ne
havis akvon. Tamen la kamelo marsis kaj marsis, kaj 10
baldaii la arabo vidis sakon antati si, sur la seka sablo.
Li estis felifia kaj diris al si "Cu estas akvo en gi ? Mi volas
trinki, kaj volas doni akvon al mia fidela kamelo." Li
ankau volis lavi la tutan vizagon en la akvo, 6ar li estis
varma. Post sia diro li kaptis la sakon, kaj komencisis
rigardi en gin. Li metis la nazon en gin, sed ne trovis
akvon en la sako. Nek li nek lia fidela kamelo havis
akvon, 6ar estis nur mono en la sako. La arabo estis
kolera, car li ne volis monon, li bezonis akvon. Li havis
m5non en sia domo en la urbo, kaj volis trovi akvon. Ca 20
li tamen metis la sakon trans la kolon de sia kamelo? Ne,
li ne volis meti gin sur sian kamelon, 6ar li estis kolera
Li ne tenis la sakon, sed gi falls sur la sablon, kaj kusis
apud li. La sako nun kusas sur la sablo de la granda
dezerto, kaj la mono estas en gi. 25

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Today it is raining, but yesterday it was snowing.

2. Did your friend John carry his chair into the house?

3. I saw your good friends on the way to the city. 4. Is
the large sack behind the door theirs? 5. Neither she nor
her brother saw the whole city. 6. They went to the city
of Boston and lost their way. 7. There are interesting
houses across the street. 8. The body of a camel is large,
and its neck is long. 9. The camel pushed its head into
the house of the arab, and he was angry. 10. On the sand

34 LESSOK ill. [§53

in the desert there lies a sack. 11. In the sack there is
money. 12. The.arab was warm, and wished to drink
water. 13. He also wished to give water to the faithful
camel. 14. Nevertheless, he found only money in the sack.
15. He was angry, and did not keep the sack. 16. Yester-
day he wished to find money, but today he prefers water.
17. Nevertheless there is only sand in the desert. 18. He
wished to come from the dry desert to the house of a faithful
friend. 19. Both he and his friends are rich. 20. They
went to his house yesterday, and came to theirs today.
21. They do not need money.

LESSON XII.

INDIRECT STATEMENTS.

53. A statement made indirectly by means of a clause *
dependent upon a verb meaning "say," "think," "know,"
"believe," or a similar expression, as in "I know that he
came," "I hear that he is good," is called an indirect state-
ment. (The direct statement is "he came," "he is good.")
An indirect statement is joined to the main verb or sen-
tence by the subordinating conjunction ke, that.-f

Mi diras ke li estas bona, / say that he is good.

Johano diras ke vi venis hierau, John says that you came yesterday.

§i opinias ke estas mono en la sako, she thinks that there is money in

the bag.
Ni vidas ke negas, we see that it is snowing.

*A clause is a group of words including a verb, which is dependent upon or
subordinate to a main verb or sentence, as " — that he came," " — when he went,"
*' — that he is good," etc.

t In English the subordinating conjunction may sometimes be omitted, either
" I think that he is good," or " I think he is good," being usually permissible.
But in Esperanto there is no variation, and the conjunction ke is never omitted.

§§54-55] LESSON xu. 35

THE INDEFINITE PERSONAL PRONOUN ONI.

54. When an indefinite personal pronoun is desired, as
in the expressions "one knows," "they say," "people say,"
"you can see," etc., the indefinite personal pronoun oni is
used. This pronoun may also be used in translating such
expressions as "it is said," "I am told," etc.:

Oni diras ke li estas rica, they say (one says) that he is rich.

Oni vidas ke ili estas amikoj, one sees that they are friends.

Mi opinias ke oni §atas lin, / think that people like him {that he is

liked).
Oni diris al mi ke estas sablo en la dezerto, / was told {people said to

me) that there is sand in the desert.
Oni opinias ke §i estas felica, it is thought {one thinks) that she is

happy.
Cu oni vidis nin en la ^ardeno ? Were we seen {did people see us) in

the garden?
Oni §atas agrablajn infanojn, people like agreeable children {agreeable

children are liked).

THE FUTURE TENSE.

55. The future tense of the verb expresses an act or state
as about to take place, or as one that will take place in
future time. The ending of this tense is -os, as kuros,
will run, flugos, will fly, brilos, will shine. The conjugation
of esti and also of vidi in the future tense is as follows:

mi estos, / shall be. mi vidos, I shall see.

vi estos, you will be. vi vidos, you will see.

li (§i, gi) estos, he {she, it) will be. li (si, gi) vidos, he (she, it) will see.

ni estos, we shall be. ni vidos, we shall see.

vi estos, you {plural) will be. vi vidos, you {plural) will see.

ili estos, they will be. ili vidos, they will see.

Vocabulary.

audi, to hear. greno, grain (wheat, corn, etc.).

blovi, to blow. ke, that (conjunction).

36 LESSON XII. [§55

kontrafl, against. orienta, east, eastern.

montri, to show, to point out. pluvo, rain.

norda, north, northern. suda, sovih, southern.

nova, new. velki, to wilt, to wither.

okcidenta, west, western. vento, wind.

oni, (see 54). ventoflago, weathercock.

opinii, to think, to opine. vetero, weather.

LA VENTOFLAGO.

Estis varma vetero, la suno brilis, kaj suda vento blovis.
Tamen la nova ventoflago sur la domo diris al si, "La sudan
venton mi ne satas. Mi preferas orientan venton." La
vento orienta aiidis la diron kaj gi venis kontrau la vento-

6 flagon. Pluvis kaj pluvis, kaj oni estis kolera kontraii la
ventoflago, car gi montras orientan venton. Gi diris,
"Pluvas nun, sed la greno en la kampoj bezonos sekan
veteron. Oni estos kolera kontraii mi, car mi montras
orientan venton." La okcidenta vento aiidis la vento-

10 flagon, kaj baldaii venis. Gi ne estis forta, sed gi estis
seka kaj agrabla vento, kaj ne portis pluvon. La viroj,
virinoj, kaj junaj infanoj volis trinki, sed ili ne havis akvon.
La greno kaj la floroj velkis, kaj la frukto ankaii falis.
La nova ventoflago diris, "Oni estos kolera kontraii mi,

15 car ne pluvas. Oni opinios ke, 6ar mi montras okcidentan
venton, la frukto falas, kaj la greno kaj floroj velkas. Mi
satas montri nek okcidentan nek orientan venton!"
Norda vento aiidis kaj venis al la ventoflago. La vetero
ne estis agrabla, kaj la virinoj kaj la junaj infanoj ne estis

sovarmaj. Negis, kaj oni estis kolera. Oni diris "La greno
kaj la frukto bezonas varman veteron, sed hodiaii negas.
Ni preferas la sudan venton. Ni havis gin, antaii la
orienta, la okcidenta, kaj la norda ventoj. La ventoflago
ne estas fidela amiko al ni. Gi ne montras bonajn ventojn,

25 kaj ni volas rompi gin ! "

§56] LESSON xiir. 37

Oni kuris al la domo, kaptis la novan ventoflagon, kaj
ankati rompis ^in. Gi falls, kaj ku§is sur la vojo antaii la
domo.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. One can see that the weathercock points-out the
winds. 2. They say that the west wind will be a dry wind.
3. The weathercock now shows that an agreeable south
wind blows. 4. People will be angry with (against) the
weathercock, because it points-out a north wind. 5. A
north wind is not warm, and the grain and fruit will need a
warm wind. 6. It snowed, and the young children were not
warm, because the north wind blew. 7. People will like a
south wind, but an east wind will carry rain. 8. Can one
find money in the desert ? 9. Do you think (that) he is in
the house? 10. He is said to be (they say that he is) on
the street. 11. It is thought (people think) that the camel
is a faithful friend. 12. I am told (people tell me) that
the camel has a large body, and a long neck. 13. One can
see that it is not beautiful. 14. People do not like to drink
warm water. 15. Nevertheless we shall drink warm
water in the city. 16. It was beautiful weather yesterday,
but today we shall have good weather also. 17. 1 think
that a warm wind will blow soon. 18. My friend has a
beautiful new house.

LESSON XIII.

THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN TIU.

56. The demonstrative pronoun tiu, that, is used to indi-
cate a person or a definitely specified thing. The plural is
tiuj, those:
Tiu estas la via, kaj mi volas tiun, that is yours, and I wish that one.

88 LESSON XIII. . [§§57-59

Tiuj estos koleraj kontrau vi, those will he angry with you.
Li audis tiujn, he heard those (persons, or things).

57. The demonstrative pronoun tiu is also used as a
pronominal adjective, in agreement with a noun:

Tiu vento estos varma, that wind will he warm.
Mi vidas tiun ventoflagon, / see that weathercock.
Tiuj infanoj estas junaj, those children are young.
Mi trovos tiujn librojn, / shall find those books.

TENSES IN INDIRECT QUOTATIONS.

58. The verb in an indirect statement (53) or an indirect
question * remains in the same tense in which it would be
if the statement or question were direct. (In English this
is true only if the introductory verb is present or future,
since after an introductory past tense the tense of the in-
direct quotation is changed, and am, is, are, have, will
become was, were, had, would, etc.)

Mi diras ke li estas bona, / say that he is good.

" diris " " " " , I said that he was good.

" diros " " " " , I shall say that he is good.
Li miras £u mi aiidas, he wonders whether I hear.
" miris " " " he wondered whether I heard.
" miros " " " he will wonder whether I hear.
Mi opiniis ke ^i estas bona, I thought that it was good (I thought " it

is good ").
Oni miris cu li venos, they wondered whether he would come (they won-
dered " will he come f ").

FORMATION OF FEMININE NOUNS.

59. Feminine nouns corresponding to distinctly mascu-
line nouns such as frato, knabo, viro, may be formed from

* An indirect question is introduced by cu, whether, after verbs meaning "ask,"
"wonder," "know," etc.:

Mi miras cu li venis, 7 wonder whether he came.
Oni demandas cu li estas rica, people ask whether he is rich.

§59] LESSON XIII. 39

these by insertingthe suffix -in- just before the noun-ending

-o:*

fratino, sister (from frato, brother) . patrino, mother (from patro, father) .
knabino, girl (from knabo, boy), virino, woman (from viro, man).

VOCABULAKY.

almenau, at least. paroli, to talk, to speak.

fiapelo, hat. parko, park.

£ielo, sky, heaven. preskau, almost.

file, son. pri, concerning, about.

konstrui, to build. promeni, to take a walk.

miri, to wonder. super, above.

morgau, tomorrow. timi, to fear, to be afraid (of).

nubo, cloud. tin, that (56).

ombrelo, umbrella. zorga, careful.

EN LA PARKO.

Miaj junaj amiko kaj amikino, kaj ankaii ilia patrino,
iris hierati al la parko. La infanoj diris al la patrino ke la
parko estas agrabla, kaj ke ili volas promeni en gi. La
knabino parolis al sia frato pri la belaj floroj. Si diris al li
ke la floroj velkas, kaj ke la herbo en preskati la tuta parko 5
bezonas pluvon. La knabo diris hodiaii al mi ke hieraii li
kaj lia fratino audis la birdojn en la arboj super siaj kapoj.
Li diris ke li miris pri tiuj birdoj, tamen li opinias ke la
birdoj baldau konstruos siajn nestojn en tiuj arboj. La
infanoj promenis, kaj baldau ili vidis ke grizaj nuboj venas 10
sur la cielon, kaj mia juna amikino timis ke pluvos. Si par-
olis al la patrino pri la nuboj kaj la pluvo, montris al si
la grizajn nubojn, kaj diris ke si volas iri al la domo. Ili ko-
mencis marsi al la strato, kaj preskaii kuris, fiar ili ne havis
ombrelon. Tra la fenestroj de la domoj oni rigardis ilin, 15
kaj la knabo miris cu li kaj liaj patrino kaj fratino amuzas

* Of. English names similarly formed from masculine names, as Pauline,
Josephine, Ernestine, Geraldme, etc., also German Konigin, queen, from Konig,
king; Limin, lioness, from Lowe, lion, etc.

40 LESSON XIII. [§59

tiujnvirojn kaj virinojn. Tamen la patrino diris ke si ne
timas ke si amuzos tiujn, sed ke si timas la pluvon. Si kaj
la filino volas esti zorgaj pri almenaii la novaj 6apeloj.

20 La filo diris al si ke li ankaii estas zorga, sed ke li opinias
ke ne pluvos. Baldaii la patro venis al ili, kaj portis
ombrelojn, car li ankau timis la pluvon. Li miris 6u la
infanoj kaj ilia patrino havas ombrelojn. Baldaii pluvis,
sed ili estis selcaj, car ili havis la ombrelojn. Morgaii

ir, ili ne promenos en la parko, sed iros al la urbo.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. The east wind is dry and the south wind will be too
warm. 2. A west wind blew against the weathercock, but
the grain needed a south wind. 3 A north wind is blow-
ing and I think that it will soon snow. 4. It (51) will be
beautiful weather tomorrow, because a pleasant wind is
now blowing. 5. The flowers will wither because those
children gathered them. 6. They are talking about that
park, but I do not wish to take-a-walk, because there are
clouds in (on) the sky. 7. At least we shall take an um-
brella, and my brother will hold it over our heads. 8. My
sister said "Mother and I are-afraid that it will rain." 9.
My young sister will be careful about that new umbrella.
10. I wonder whether she will take-a-walk tomorrow. IL
That park is pleasant and the grass is soft and green.
12. The birds are building their nests now, in those
branches above our heads. 13. The sky above us is blue,
and a west wind is beginning to blow. 14. I can see that
weathercock, on that large house near the park. 15.
Mother says that my sister will have a new hat tomorrow.
16. She will be careful of (about) that hat. 17. My
father's friend is very careful of his son. 18. One sees that
he is not a strong bov.

§§60-62] LEssoisr xiv. 41

LESSON XIV.

THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN Cl TIU,

60. The demonstrative pronoun (and pronominal adjec-
tive) meaning "ttiis" is formed by using with tiu (56) the
word ci, which expresses the general idea of nearness or
proximity. (Consequently the literal meaning of ci tiu
is that one nearby, thai one here.) The word ci may either
precede or follow the pronoun:

Ci tiu estas la mia, this is mine.

Mi vidis ci tiun, / saiv this one.

Cu vi volas tiujn ci ? Do you wish these f

Ci tiu knabino estas mia fratino, this girl is my sister.

Mi vidis £i tiujn Capelojn, I saw these hats.

Ci tiuj amikoj promenos, these friends will take a walk.

61. The words tiu and ci tiu m_ay be used to distinguish
between persons or things previously mentioned and just
mentioned :

Gertrudo kaj Mario estas en la parko. Tiu rigardas la florojn, £i tiu
kolektas ilin. Gertrude and Mary are in the park. The former
(that one) looks at the flowers, the latter (this one) gathers them.

POSSESSIVE FORM OF THE DEMONSTRATIVE
PRONOUN.

62. To express possession, the demonstrative pronouns
tiu and 6i tiu have the special possessive or genitive forms
ties, that one's, and ci ties, this one's. The use of ties and
ci ties to mean "the former" and "the latter" is similar
to the use of tiu and ci tiu shown in 61 :

Mi iris al ties domo, / went to that one's house.
Ci ties filoj estas junaj, this person's (this one's) sons are young.
Mi satas ties koloron, sed preferas £i tiun floron, I like that one's
color, but prefer this flower.

42 LESSON XIV. [§§63-64

La patro kaj lia amiko parolas pri siaj domoj. Ties estas nova, sed
£i ties sajaas bela, Father and his friend are talking about their
houses. The former's is new, but the latter's seems beautiful.

THE SUFFIX -IL-.

63. Names of instruments, tools or utensils may be
formed by adding the suffix -il- (followed by the ending
-o) to roots * whose meaning permits:

flugilo, wing (from flugi, to fly}.

kaptilo, snare, trap (from kapti, to catch).

kudrilo, needle (from kudri, to sew).

montrilo, indicator, (clock) hand (from montri, to point out, show).

tenilo, handle (from teni, to hold).

THE EXPRESSION OF MEANS OR INSTRUMENTALITY.

64. The means or instrumentality through which an act
is accomplished is expressed by use of the preposition per :

Onx kudras per kudrilo, one sews by means of (with) a needle.
La birdoj flugas per flugiloj, the birds fly by (with) wings.
Li amuzas sin per tiuj bildoj, he amuses himself with (by) those pic-
tures.
Mi trovis gin per via helpo, / found it by (through) your help.

Vocabulary.

akra, sharp. najbaro, neighbor.

buso, mouth. per, by means of (64).

dekstra, right (not left). supo, soup.

ti (see 60). telero, plate.

forko, fork. terpomo, potato.

helpo, help. ties, that one'^ (62).

kafo, coffee. tranci, to cut.

kulero, spoon. tre, very, exceedingly.

mano, hand. viando, meat.

* The root of a word is that part of it which contains the essential meaning,
and to which the verb endings -i, -as, -is, -os, the noun ending -o, the adjective
ending -a, etc., are attached, when no suffix intervenes. Thus, vir- is the root
of viro and of virino; kur- is the root of kuri, etc.

§64] LESSON XIV. 43

LA MAN60.

Hierau mi miris cu mi havos bonan man^on en la
domo de mia amiko. Sed mi opiniis ke mi havos tre
bonan mangon, car mia amiko satas doni bonajn man-
gojn al siaj amilroj. Oni metis tre bonan supon antaii
mi, kaj mi mangis tiun per granda Imlero. Post la 5
supo mi havis viandon. Ci tiun mi tenis per forko,
kaj trancis per akra trancilo. La forko, trancilo kaj
kulero estas mangiloj. Mi havis ne nur viandon, sed
ankati novajn terpomojn. Mi trancis tiujn 6i per la tran-
cilo, sed mi metis ilin en la buson per forko. Mi tenis la lo
forkon en la dekstra mano, kaj metis la tranfeilon trans
mian teleron. Oni bezonas akran trancilon, sed oni ne
bezonas tre akran forkon. Post la viando kaj la terpomoj,
oni donis al mi fresajn maturajn cerizojn. Hi kusis sur
granda telero, kaj havis belan koloron. Ilia gusto is
estis ankati bona. Mi preskaii ne diris ke mi ankatt
havis kafon. Mi parolos morgaii al mia amiko pri lia
kafo, kaj laudos gin. Post la mango, najbaro de mia
amiko venis en ci ties demon, kaj ili parolis al mi pri siaj
novaj domoj. Per la helpo de sia patro, mia amiko kon-20
struos grandan domon. Lia najbaro volas konstrui belan
sed ne tre grandan domon. Ties nova domo estos bela,
sed mi opinias ke mi preferos 6i ties domon. Mia amiko
volis doni almenaii kafon al sia najbaro, sed li diris ke li ne
volas trinki kafon. Tamen li volis persikon. Li tenis as
tiun en la mano, kaj mangis tiun.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. The birds have very strong wings on their bodies, but
they do not have hands. 2. They will build their nests, and
sing about the young birds. 3. Those children were talk-

44 LESSON XV.

ing to me yesterday about their cat. 4. They said that it
likes to catch and eat sparrows. 5. Tomorrow it will hide
(itself) behind a tree, and will catch a young sparrow.
6. The children will gather peaches in that-person's gar-
den, and will put them upon a plate. 7. They will shake
the whole tree by means of a branch. 8. The sweet fruit
above them will fall upon the soft green grass. 9. The
children wondered whether the cherries were ripe. 10.
They seem almost ripe, and tomorrow the children will
pick (gather) them, with the help of their father. 11. It
is said (54) that the grain in that-man's field very [much]
needs rain. 12. People also think that the flowers will
wither, for (because) it did not rain yesterday or today.
13. My careful young friend will carry an umbrella in his
hand tomorrow, because he fears the rain. 14. He sees
those gray clouds in (on) the sky. 15. He holds the um-
brella by its handle. 16. The weathercock is an indicator
concerning the weather. 17. One eats meat with a fork,
and soup with a spoon. 18. One holds the spoon in the
right hand. 19. A knife is sharp, but one does not need
a sharp fork. 20. We shall have a very good meal, and
also very good coffee.

LESSON XV.

THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE.

65. The demonstrative adjective related to the demon-
strative pronoun tiu (56) is tia, that kind of, that sort of,
such:

Tia floro estas bela, that hind of a flower is beautiful.

Mi satas tian viandon, / like that sort of meat.

Tiaj najbaroj estas agrablaj, such (that kind of) neighbors are pleasant.

Mi volas aiidi tiajn birdojn, I wish to hear such birds.

§66] LESSOR XV. 45

ADVERBS DEFINED AND CLASSIFIED.

66. An adverb is a word which modifies the meaning of
a verb, adjective, another adverb, or phrase. It may ex-
press manner, time, degree, negation, etc. Adverbs are
either primary, as "now," "almost," or derived, as "glad-
ly," "sweet-ly," The Esperanto primary adverbs given
in this and in preceding lessons may be classified as follows:

(a) Temporal Adverbs (expressing time) :
baldaii, soon. morgaii, tomorrow.

hierau, yesterday. nun, now.

hodiau, today. tuj, immediately.

(b) Adverbs of Degree.
almenau, at least. preskaii, almost.

nur, merely. tre, very, much.

(c) Adverbs Expressing Other Ideas,
addition: ankau, also. emphasis: ec, even.

interrogation: cu, (30, p. 38, ftn.). affirmation: jes, yes.
proximity: £i, (60). negation: ne, not, no, (27).

a. An adverb usually precedes, but may also follow,
the word or words which it modifies. It must be so placed
as to leave no doubt about which of two words or word-
groups it is intended to modify. Thus, mi preskau volis
havi tiun clearly means / almost wished to have that; but
mi volis preskafl havi tiun might mean either "I almost
wished to have that," or more probably "I wished almost
to have that." An example of permissible variation in the
position of adverbs is shown in questions to which an
affirmative answer is expected. Such questions may be
put in the form of a statement, followed by cu ne (instead
of having cu introduce the sentence, with ne in its normal
position) :
Li venos, 6u ne? He will come, will he notf

46 LESSON XV. [§67

La vetero estas bela, cu ne ? The weather is beautiful, is it not f
Vi audis tiun diron, £u ne ? You heard that remark, did you not ?

FORMATION OF OPPOSITES.

67. ti the meaning of a word is sucli tiiat it can have a
direct opposite, such opposite may be formed from it by
use of the prefix mal- : *

malalta, low, short (from alta, high, tall).
malamiko, enemy (from amiko, friend).
maldekstra, left (from dekstra, rigid).
malhelpi, to hinder (from helpi, to help).
maljuna, aged, old (from juna, young).
malnova, old, not new (from nova, new).

Vocabulary.

dum, during. povi, to he able.

ec, even. preni, to take.

gardi, to guard. propone, proposal.

helpi, to help, to aid. respond!, to answer.

honti, to be ashamed. ruza, sly, cunning.

kara, dear. §teli, to steal.

kontenta, satisfied. tia, that kind of (65).

kuraga, courageous. _ tuj, immediately.

nokto, night. voco, voice.

LA RUZA JUNA VIRO.

Ruza juna viro kaj bona maljuna viro iris trans dezerton.
Tiu havis nigran 6evalon, 6i tiu havis blankan cevalon.
"Vi gardosniajn cevalojn dum la nokto, cu ne?" diris la
juna viro per dol6a vo6o al sia amiko, "Car dum la nokto
5oni ne povos vidi mian nigran cevalon, sed malamikoj
povos tuj vidi vian blankan fievalon. Oni povos steU tian
fievalon, 6ar vi estas maljuna kaj malforta, kaj ne povos
malhelpi mal amiko jn." Tia propone ne sajnis agrabla al

*C7. English malcontent, " discontented." maladro't, " clumsy."

§67] LESSOif XV. 47

la maljuna viro. Li ne estis kontenta, tamen li ne volis
perdi sian fievalon, car li estis malrica. Li diris al si ke lo
li donos sian blan];an devalon al la juna viro, kaj prenos
ties nigran fievalon. Tuj li diris al 6i tiu "Sed per via
helpo mi ne perdos mian fievalon: mi donos la mian al vi,
kaj prenos vian fievalon. La via estas malbela, sed gi
estas almenati nigra; vi donos gin al mi, 6u ne?" 'Mes,"i5
respondis la ruza juna viro, kaj li donis sian nigran
6evalon al tiu, kaj prenis la blankan fievalon. "Nun,"
diris la maljuna viro, "Vi estas kuraga kaj forta, kaj vi
gardos la 6evalojn, 6u ne? Vi povos malhelpi malami-
kojn per tiu granda akra trandilo, kaj oni ne povos ste-20
li vian blankan cevalon." La ruza juna viro ne hontis. Li
respondis "Mia kara amiko, mi nun dormos, 6ar oni ne
stelos blankan 6evalon. Mi povos vidi tian fievalon dum
la nokto, kaj malhelpi malamikojn. Sed tiu fievalo via
(that horse of yours) havas la koloron de la nokto, kaj e6 25
nun oni povas §teli gin." La malkontenta maljuna viro
diris per koJera voco "Cu vi ne hontas pri tia propono?"
Tamen la ruza juna viro tuj komencis dormi, kaj la mal-
juna viro gardis la 6evalojn dum la tuta nokto.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

(Words to be formed with the prefix mal- are italicised.)

1. Does one eat potatoes and meat with a fork or a
spoon? 2. One puts soup into the mouth by means of a
spoon. 3. One cuts fruit with a knife, and puts the fruit
upon a plate. 4. The coffee was cold, and I was much
dissatisfied. 5. My knife was dull, nevertheless I almost
immediately cut my (the) left hand. 6. I was ashamed,
but I think that the handle of that knife was very short.
7. The grass is wet today, and I fear that we shall not be

48 LESSON XVI. [§§68-69

able to take a walk, even in that small park. 8. I dislike
to go-walking upon the hard streets. 9. The courageous
young man and his aged friend talked about their enemies.
10. They wished to be careful about their horses. 11. The
young man was very sly, and wished to sleep during the
night. 12. He said that one can steal a black horse during
the dark night. 13. He said that either (aU) he or the old
man would guard the horses. 14. The old man answered
that he would give to him his [own] white horse. 15. He
took that one's black horse. 16. He was ashamed, and
was very angry at his faithless friend. 17. But he stayed-
awake, and guarded the horses.

LESSON XVI.

THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF PLACE.

68. The demonstrative adverbs of place related to the
pronouns tiu and ci tiu are tie, there, in (at) that place, and
6i tie, here, in (at) this place :

La telero estas tie, the plate is there (in that place).

La libroj kuSas £i tie, the books lie here (in this place).

Mi trovis vin tie kaj lin tie ci, I found you there and him here.

Tie la vetero lajnas tre agrabla, there the weather seems very pleasant.

69. If the verb in the sentence expresses motion toward
the place indicated by tie or ci tie, the ending -n is added
to the adverb (46), forming tien, thither, there, and ci tien,
hither, here :

Li iros tien, he will go there (thither).
Mi venis £i tien, I came here (hither).
Ni estis tie, kaj venis ci tien, we were there and came here (hither).

§§70-72J LESSON XVI. 49

ACCOMPANIMENT.

70. Accompaniment or association is expressed by the
preposition kun, with, along with : *

La viro venis kun sia amiko, the man came with his friend.
Mi promenos kun vi, / shall go walking ivith you.
La knabo kun tiu viro estas lia frato, the boy with that man is his
brother.

THE ADVERB FOR.

71. The adverb for, away, may be used independently,
as Li iris for de mi, he went away from me, but it is more
frequently used as a prefixf to give a sense of departure,
loss or somewhat forcible removal:

foriri, to go away, to depart.

forkuri, to run away, to escape.

forlasi, to leave alone, to abandon, to desert.

formangi, to eat away, to eat up.

forpreni, to take away, to remove.

fortrinki, to drink away, to drink up.

THE MEANING OF POVI.
72. The verb povi, to be able, is used to translate En-

* Kun must not be confused with per (64), which expresses instrumentality,
although per may often be translated by English " with." The English prepo-
sition " with " may be said to have three rather clearly defined different mean-
ings. In the linguistic history of this word, the original meaning was " against,"
still shown in fight with, strive with, contend with, withstand, etc. (Cf. German
widerstreiten, to strive with, widerhalten, to resist, etc.) Gradually this word
" with " usurped the meaning of the original preposition " mid," expressing
association or accompaniment {cf. German niit, " with ", which it crowded out
of the language except in one unimportant compound). The word " by " was
also encroaching upon " mid " from another direction, and so " mid's " successor
" with " came to be interchangeable with " by " in expressing instrumentality.
Thus, English " with " indicates opposition, accompaniment, or instrumen-
tality, for which three senses Esperanto has the three prepositions kontraii,
kun, and per, respectively.

t Cf. the prefix for- in English " forfend," to kee-p av:ay, to avert, " fdrbid,"
fo exclude from, to command against, " forbear," to refrain from, etc.

50 LESSON XVI. [§72

glish can, which is defective, that is, does not occur in all
of the forms a verb may have:

Mi povas paroli, / am able to talk, I can talk.
Mi povis paroli, / was able to talk, I could toXk.

Mi povos paroli, / shall be able to talk, .

Mi volas povi paroli, / wish to be able to talk, .

Vocabulary.

el, ovi of, out. peli, to drive, to chase.

£irkau, around, roundabout. polo, pocket.

for, away (71). rajdi, to ride.

frua, early. rapidi, to hasten.

glavo, sword. resti, to remain, to stay.

horo, hour. saga, wise.

kun, with (70). tie, there (68).

lasi, to leave. voki, to call.

MALAMIKOJ EN LA DEZERTO.

Juna viro kaj lia saga patro volis iri trans la dezerton,
kun siaj amikoj. La amikoj estis fortaj, kaj la juna viro
estis tre kuraga. Hi restis en malgranda urbo dum la
nokto, kaj forrajdis kun tiuj amikoj. La patro kaj

5 la filo opiniis ke la amikoj kun ili povos helpi per
siaj akraj glavo j. Ili opiniis ke ili povos forpeli la
malamikojn. E6 en la dezerto oni trovas malamikojn.
Tiaj malamikoj forprenas la monon de bonaj viroj.
La juna viro estis kontenta, 6ar li estis kun la amikoj.

10 La maljuna viro estis kontenta 6ar li estis kun sia filo.
Baldaii la nokto venis. Estis tre malluma tie en la
dezerto, kaj ili preskaii ne povis vidi. Dum la fruaj
horoj de la nokto la patro atidis vo6ojn, kaj preskati
tuj li vidis la malamikojn. La ruzaj malbonaj viroj

israpidis tien, kaj vokis la maljunan viron. La malkura^aj
amikoj de la patro kaj filo nek restis tie, nek helpis

§72] LESSON XVI. 61

forpeli la malamikojn. Hi tuj forkuris. La malamikoj
staris cirkati la patro, kaj forpusis lin de lia fievalo. La
filo volis malhelpi ilin, sed li ne povis. Li povis nur resti
kun la patro, kaj gardi lin tie kontraii la glavoj de la 20
malamikoj. Baldau la malamikoj komencis forpreni la
monon el la po§oj de la saga maljuna viro. La kolera filo
diris per maldolSa (bitter) vo6o "Cu vi ne hontas? Cu vi
lasos al ni nek la Sevalojn nek nian monon?" Sed la ma-
lamikoj respondis "Ne, ni lasos al vi nek la fievalojn nek la 25
monon. Ni ne estas malsagaj." Post tiu diro ili tuj
forrapidis, kaj prenis kun si la cevalojn.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. The foolish friends of the young man and his aged
father did not stay with them. 2. They did not help them
with their swords, but ran away at once (tuj), and were
not ashamed. 3. The old man heard disagreeable voices
behind him, and soon he saw the enemy. 4. The enemy
called them, and hastened there (69). 5. Those sly bad
men took the money out of the pockets of the courageous
young man. 6. They stood around him, and also around
his father. 7. The father and son could not even guard
their horses. 8. The enemy did not leave (to) these their
horses, but took both the horses and the money. 9. Soon
the enemy rode away, during the late hours of the night.
10. The father and son were angry and dissatisfied. 11.
They said "We fear and dislike such men." 12. The
father said "By the help of our neighbors we can (povos)
find those bad men, and drive them away, out of the
desert." 13. The son replied, "Dear Father, such a pro-
posal seems good, and I will help with my long sharp
sword. 14. But we are now in the desert, and the road
to the city is long. 15. We cannot ride thither, but we can

52 LESSON XVII. [§§73-75

walk thither. 16. Can you not hasten, with {-per) my
help?" 17. The wise old man answered, "Yes, my son,
with such help I can walk thither."

LESSON XVII.
THE DEMONSTRATIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB.

73. The demonstrative temporal adverb related to the
demonstrative pronoun tiu is tiam, then, at that time:

Tiam li rajdos al la urbo, then he will ride to the city.
Nun ili estas sagaj, sed tiam ili estis malsagaj, now they are wise, but
at that time they were foolish.

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.

74. An adjective may have three degrees, positive,
comparative and superlative. English has various ways of
forming the comparative and superlative degrees (as by
the suffixes -er, -est, the adverbs more, most, and irregular
methods as in good, better, best, etc.). Esperanto has only
one method, using the adverbs pli, more, and plej, most :

Positive. Comparative. Superlative.

bela, beautiful, pli bela, more beautiful, piej bela, most beautiful.

bona, good, pli bona, better, plej bona, best.

malbona, bad, pli malbona, worse, plej malbona, worst.

saga, wise, pli saga, wiser, plej saga, wisest.

75. The preposition el is used with words expressing the
group or class out of which a superlative is selected and
mentioned :

Li estas la plej juna el tiuj, he is the youngest of (out of) those.

Vi estas la plej felica el ni, you are the happiest of us.

Tiu estis la plej ruza el la viroj, that one was the craftiest of the men.

^76-77] LESSON XVII. 53

MANNER AND CHARACTERISTIC.

76. The actions or feelings which accompany an act or
state, or the characteristic which permanently accom-
panies a person or thing, may be expressed by a substan-
tive with the preposition kun : *

Li prenis gin kun la plej granda zorgo, he took it with the greatest care.
Mi audis lin kun intereso kaj plezuro, / heard him with interest and

pleasure.
§i estas virino kun bona gusto, she is a woman with (of) good taste.
Mi havas £evalon kun forta korpo, / have a horse with a strong body.

DIRI, PAROLI AND RAKONTI.

77. The verbs diri, to say, paroli, to talk, to speak, and
rakonti, to relate, having in common th'e general idea of
speech or expression, must not be confused in use:

Mi diris al vi ke pluvas, / said to (told) you that it was raining.

Mi diris gin al vi, / said it to you (I told you).

Mi parolis al vi pri gi, / talked (spoke) to you about it.

Mi rakontis gin al vi, / related (told) it to you.

VOCABULABT.

ami, to love. pli, more (74).

ekster, outside (of). plumo, pen.

Frederiko, Frederick. rakonti, to relate ('ji)

gratuli, to congratulate. refo, king.

intereso, interest. servisto, servant.

letero, letter. skribi, to write.

plej, mx)st (74). tiam, then (73).

plezuro, pleasure. zorgo, care.

* Sometimes the manner of an action may be expressed by the instrument of
it, expressed by the preposition per with a substantive modified by an adjective:
Li kantis per dolca vo£o, he sang wHh (by means of) a sweet voice.
Vi pusis min per forta mano, you pushed me with a strong hand.

54 LESSON XVII. [§77

FREDERIKO GRANDA KAJ LA JUNA SERVISTO.

Hierati mi legis interesan libron pri Frederiko Granda
(pie Great). En gi oni rakontas ke la rego kun plezuro
legis ail skribis per sia plumo, dum malfruaj horoj de la
nokto. Agrabla juna knabo, la plej juna el la servistoj,
5 tiam restis ekster la pordo. Car la rego legis plej interesan
novan libron, li ne opiniis ke la hero estas malfrua. Li
vokis sian malgrandan serviston, sed la knabo, nek venis
nek respondis. La rego iris tien, kaj trovis la knabon
ekster la pordo. Li vidis ke la knabo dormas sur malalta

losego. Tiam Frederiko Granda ne estis kolera, sed hontis
tax li vokis la infanon. La rego Frederiko vidis leteron en
la poso de la knabo. Tuj li prenis la leteron el lia poso,
kaj rigardis gin. Gi estis letero al la servisto, de lia pa-
trino. Si ne estis ri6a virino, si lajnis esti tre malri6a.

15 En ci tin letero la patrino diris per la plumo ke si amas la
filon. Si dankis lin 6ar li skribis al si longan leteron. Si
ankaii dankis lin 6ar li donis al si monon. La rego volis
esti tre bona al tia filo. Kun la plej granda zorgo li metis
monon el sia poso kun la letero kaj tiam lasis la leteron en

20 ties poso. Tiam li f ormarsis al sia fiambro, kaj vokis la mal-
grandan serviston. La knabo tuj aiidis, kaj rapidis tra
la pordo. Li kuris trans la cambron, kaj staris antati la
rego. "Cu vi dormis?" diris Frederiko Granda. "Jes,
mi timas ke mi preskaii dormis," respondis la knabo, "kaj

25 mi tre hontas." Tiam li metis la manon en la poson, kaj
trovis la monon. Li §ajnis pli malfelifia kaj diris kun
granda timo "Malamiko metis 6i tiun monon en mian
poson! Oni opinios ke mi §telis gin! Oni malamos min,
kaj forpelos min!" Frederiko respondis, "Ne, mi donis gin

30 al vi, 6ar mi amas bonajn knabojn. Mi gratulas vian
patrinon, 6ar §i havas tian filon."

§78] LESSON XVIII. 55

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. An interesting story is related (54) about Frederick
the Great. 2. His youngest servant stayed outside of the
door. 3. The king called him, and he hastened thither and
stood before him. 4. Yesterday he did not hear the king.
5. The king called him, but he did not answer. 6. The
king thought that the boy had gone away with the older
servants, and he was angry. 7. He left his book on the
table, and went to the door. 8. Then he saw that the little
boy was sleeping there. 9. He looked at him with greater
interest, and saw a letter in his pocket. 10. The letter was
from the boy's mother. 1 1 . He had written a letter to her,
with his pen, and had given (to) her money, because she
was poor. 12. He wrote longer letters with pleasure, be-
cause he was a most faithful son. 13. The king congratu-
lated the mother of the boy, concerning such a son. 14.
(The) king Frederick wished to be kinder {pli bona) to the
boy. 15. He placed his book upon the table, near his
sword, and talked to the little servant. 16. Then the older
servants came, and stood around the king. 17. They
walked with great care, and the younger servant did not
hear them IS. They loved the little boy, and wished to
help him.

LESSON XVIII.

THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF MOTIVE OR REASON.

78. The demonstrative adverb of motive or reason, re-
lated to the demonstrative pronoun tiu, is tial, therefore,
for that reason, so:

Tial la servisto foriris, therefore the servant went away.
Tial mi gratulis lin, for that reason I congratulated him.
Tial oni forpelis lin, so thei' drove him away.

66 LESSON XVIII. [§§'i^9-85^

DERIVATION OF ADVERBS.

79. Adverbs may be derived from roots whose meaning
permits, by addition of the adverb-ending -e, as felice,
happily, kolere, angrily. The comparison of adverbs is
similar to that of adjectives:

Positive. Comparative. Superlative.

sage, wisely, pli sage, 7nore wisely, plej sa^e, most wisely.

bone, well, pli bone, better, plej bone, best.

malbone, badly, pli malbone, worse, plej malbone, worst.

ruze, slyly, pli ruze, more slyly, plej ruze, most slyly.

MALPLI AND MALPLEJ.

80. The opposites (67) of pli and plej are malpli, less, and
malplej, least. Their use is similar to that of pli and plej,
(These adverbs may also modify verbs) :

Li estas malpli kuraga, he is less courageous.

Tiuj estis malplej akraj, those were least sharp.

La vento blovis malpli forte, the wind blew less strongly.

Li skribis malplej zorge, he wrote least carefully.

Mi malpli timas ilin, / fear them less.

Vi malplej bezonoshelpon, you will need help least.

COMPARISON OF WORDS EXPRESSING QUANTITY.

81. Since in their precise sense the words pli,' malpli,
plej, malplej, express degree, a quantitative meaning is
given by multe, much, in the desired degree of comparison:

multe, much, pli multe, more (in amount), plej multe, most.

malpli multe, less, " malplej multe, least.

malmulte, little, pli malmulte, Uss " plej malmulte, least.

COMPARISONS CONTAINING OL.

82. In a comparison made by the use of pli or malpli.

§83] LESSON XVIII. 57

the case used after ol, than, must indicate clearly the sense

intended :

Mi amas ilin pli multe ol sin, / love them more than (I love) her.
Mi amas ilin pli multe ol si, / love them more than she (loves them).
Vi helpis la viron malpli multe ol la knabo, you helped the man less

than the boy (helped him).
Vi helpis la viron mialpli multe ol la knabon, you helped the man less

than (you helped) the boy.

CAUSAL CLAUSES.

83. A clause giving a cause or reason is introduced by
car, because, for, or by the combination tial ke, for this
'reason that, because, for:

Mi venis frue, car mi volis vidi vin, I came early, for I wished to see

you.
La floroj velkis tial, ke ne pluvis, the flowers wilted for this reason,

that it did not rain.

Vocabulary.

anstatau, instead of multa, much (multaj, many).

aprilo, April. ofta, frequent (ofte, often).

aiigusto, August. ol, than (82).

jaro, year. printempo, spring (season).

junio, June. tago, day.

Julio, July. . sezono, season.

majo. May. somero, summer.

marto, March. tial, therefore (78).

monato, month. viutro, winter.

PRI LA SEZONO J.

La vintro estas la malplej agrabla sezono el la tuta jaro.
Negas tre multe, kaj tial oni nur malofte promenas, 6ar la
stratoj estas tro malsekaj. Oni marsas kun granda zorgo,
kaj malrapide (slowly), tial ke oni ne volas fall kaj pres-
kati rompi la kolon. Oni zorge gardas sin tiam kontraii la

58 LESSON XVIII. [§83

malvarmaj nordaj ventoj. La manojn oni metas en la
poSojn, sed la vizagon oni ne povas bone gardi. Mi ne
§atas resti ekster la domo dum tia vetero. Mi multe pre-
feras sidi en varma luma 6ambro, kaj skribi leterojn per

10 bona plumo. La monatoj de la printempo estas marto,
aprilo kaj majo. La bela printempo sajnas pli agrabla ol
la vintro. Giaj tagoj estas pli longaj kaj pli varmaj, giaj
ventoj blovas malpli forte. En 6i tiu sezono la kampoj
kaj arboj frue komencas montri plej belajn kolorojn. La

isbirdoj konstruas siajn nestojn, kaj dolce kantas. Oni
povas promeni sur la moia herbo, anstataii siir malsekaj
malagrablaj stratoj . Pluvas pli multe en aprilo, tamen post ,
la pluvo la herbo sajnas pli verda, kaj la nuboj baldaii for-
flugas de la blua cielo. Dum majo oni trovas violojn, kaj

20 en junio oni vidas tre multajn rozojn. Sed la plej agrabla
el la sezonoj estas la somero. Anstataii, malvarmaj ven-
toj la somero havas la plej belan veteron, kun suda au
okcidenta ventoj. La longaj tagoj estas varmaj, sed la
noktoj estas tute agrablaj. Tiam oni havas pli bonajn

gsfruktojn ol dum la printempo. La monatoj de la somero
estas junio, julio kaj atigusto. Mi plej satas junion. Cu
vi §atas gin pli multe ol mi? Cu vi satas aiiguston pli
multe ol julion?

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

L I read-a most interesting book about Frederick the
Great. 2. It relates that he often stayed-awake and read
with great interest during the later hours of the night. 3.
His youngest servant was a small boy. 4. The king loved
this boy more than [he loved] the older servants. 5. The
winter is a less pleasant season than the spring, but the
summer is more pleasant than that [season]. 6. During
March the east winds blow most strongly, and shake the

§84] LESSON" XIX. 59

trees very much. 7. In April one needs his umbrella, for
(the reason that) there are often clouds in the sky and it
rains a great deal (very much). 8. The streets are very
wet, but the water does not seem to wash them. 9. In
May one begins to find sweet violets, and the birds in the
trees above our heads sing very sweetly. 10. In June the
most beautiful roses are seen (54). 11. July and August
are the warmest months of the whole year. 12. The days
are longer than the nights, and the weathercock shows
west and south winds, instead of those disagreeable north
and east winds. 13. One stays outside [of] the house then
with greater pleasure, and goes walking in the parks.

14. I think that I like the summer better than you [do].

15. Therefore I praise the summer more than you [do].

16. However, I praise you more than [I praise] your
younger brother. 17. He is less wise than you.

LESSON XIX.

JIT AND DES IN COMPARISONS.

84. In clauses expressing a comparison between two ob-
jects, acts or states, the adverbial use of English " the
. . . the . . ." (meaning "by how much ... by that
much . .")* is rendered by the adverbs ju and des, re-
spectively :

Ju pli bona li estas, des pli felica li estos, the better he is, the happier
he will he.

Ju pli ofte mi rigardas, des pli mi volas rigardi, the oftener I look, the
more I wish to look.

Ju pli bele la luno brilas, des pli oni Satas la nokton, the more beauti-
fully the moon shines, the more one likes the night.

* Cf. Shakespeare, As You Like It, V, II, 49, By so much the more shall I
tomorrow be at the height of heart-heayiness, by how much I shall think my
brother happy in having what he wishes for.

60 LEssoi-r XIX. [§§85-86

Ju malpli pluvas, des pli la floroj velkas, the less it rains, the more the

flowers vrither.
Ju malpli multe vi helpas, des malpli multe mi laiidos vin, the less you

help, the less I shall praise you.
6ar vi helpis, mi des pli multe laiidos vin, because you helped, I shall

praise you the {that much) more.

THE PREPOSITION INTER.

85. In English, the preposition "between" is used in
reference to two persons or things, and "among" in refer-
ence to thr<^e or more. As the difference in meaning is not
essential, Esperanto has but the one preposition inter to
express both between and among:

Li sidas inter vi kaj mi, he is sitting between you and me.

Li sidas inter siaj amikoj, he is sitting among his friends.

La monato majo estas inter aprilo kaj junio, the month of May is be-
tween April and June.

Inter tiuj libroj estas tre interesa libro, among those books there is a
very interesting book.

THE PREPOSITION PRO.

86. Cause or reason may be expressed not only by an
adverb (78) or a clause (83), but also by use of the prepo-
sition pro, because of, on account of, for the sake of, for. It
directs the thought away from the complement toward the
action, feeling or state caused by it, or done in its interest
or behalf:

La floroj velkas pro la seka vetero, the flowers wilt because of the dry

weather.
Mi skribis la leteron pro vi, / wrote the letter for you (for your sake).
Pro tiuj nuboj mi timas ke pluvos, on account of those clouds I fear

that it will rain.
Oni satas Serizojn pro la dolca gusto, people like cherries because of

the sweet taste.

§87] LESSON XIX. 61

PREPOSITIONS WITH ADVERBS AND OTHER
PREPOSITIONS.

87. Prepositions may be used with adverbs or with
prepositional phrases when the meaning permits:

La kato kuris el sub la tablo, the cat ran out-jrom under the table.

Li venos el tie, he will come out of there.

De nun li estos zorga, from now he will be careful.

Li staris dekstre de la vojo, he stood on the right of the road.

Mi iros for de ci tie, I shall go away from here.

VOCABULAKY.

autuno, autumn, fall. nego, snow.

decembro, December. novembro, November,

des, (see 84). nuda, bare, naked.

februaro, February. oktobro, October.

glacio, ice. pro, because of (86).

inter, between, among (85). rikolti, to harvest.

januaro, January. rivero, river.

ju, (see 84). septembro, September.

kovri, to cover. tero, ground, earth.

LA AtJTUNO KAJ LA VINTRO.

La sezonoj de la jaro estas la vintro, la printempo, la so-
mero, kaj la autuno. La autuno estas inter la somero kaj
la vintro. Giaj monatoj estas septembro, oktobro kaj no-
vembro. En septembro oni povas kolekti maturajn fruk-
tojn. Tiam ankaii oni rikoltas la flavan grenon de la e
kampoj. Dum ci tiu monato kaj dum oktobro la fohoj
sur la branSoj komencas esti rugaj kaj flavaj, anstataii
verdaj. La herbo velkas, kaj bruna tapiso sajnas kovri
la teron. Baldaii la folioj falas al la tero, kaj en novembro
la arboj estas tute nudaj. Pli ati malpli frue negas. La 10
glacio ofte kovras la akvon en la riveroj, kaj restas sur la
stratoj kaj la vojoj. La mola blanka nego kovras la teron,

62 LESSON XIX. [§87

kaj ku§as sur la brancoj de la arboj. Tiam, pro la fortaj
ventoj, gi falas de la branfioj al la tero. La birdoj frue

IS lasas tian veteron, kaj flugas de 61 tie al pli sudaj kampoj
kaj arboj. Ill ne povas resti, pro la malvarmaj tagoj kaj
noktoj. Hi malsata.s la negon kaj la glacion pli multe ol
ni. Ju pli multe negas, des pli malofte ni volas promeni.
Ni preferas resti en la dome, anstatati ekster gi. Ju pli ni

20 rigardas la nudajn branfiojn de la arboj, des pli malagrabla
§ajnas la vintro. Tamen la junaj infanoj tre satas tian
veteron, kaj ju pli negas, kaj ju pli forte la norda vento
blovas, des malpli ili estas kontentaj en la domo. Hi volas
kuri sur la nego, cirkaii la arboj kaj inter ili, kun siaj

25 junaj amikoj. Ili povas bone amuzi sin per la nego. La
monatoj de la vintro estas decembro, januaro kaj feb-
ruaro. Gi estas la plej malvarma sezono.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. September, October and November are the months
of autumn. 2. In these months, people harvest the yellow
grain and gather various fruits. 3. The leaves on the
trees around us begin to have red and yellow colors.
4. They begin to fall from the branches and lie upon the
ground. 5. The more strongly the cold north wind blows
through the branches, the sooner the leaves fall from there.

6. They lie under the bare trees, with the brown grass.

7. The sooner it snows, the sooner the ground will seem to
have a white carpet. 8. The snow will completely {tute)
cover the grass during the months of the winter. 9. These
months are December, January and February. 10. From
that time {de tiam) the ice and snow will cover the roads,
and altogether {tute) hide them. 11. There will often be
ice on the water of the river. 12. We like this season of the
year more than March, April and May. 13. We Hke it even

§§88-89] LESSON XX. 63

more than the summer. 14. The months of the latter
(62) are June, July and August. 15. The summer is the
warmest season of the entire year. 16. Therefore we often
say that the summer is the pleasantest season. 17. Be-
cause of its many pleasures, the summer is dear to me.
18. It is between the spring and the autumn.

LESSON XX.

THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF MANNER AND
DEGREE.

88. The demonstrative adverb of manner and degree,
related to the demonstrative pronoun tiu, is tiel, in that
(this) manner, in such a way, thus, so. Like English "thus,"
"so," tiel may modify adjectives and other adverbs, by
indicating degree:

Cu oni tiel helpas amikon? Does one help a friend in that (this) way?

Mi lin skribis tiel, / wrote it thus (in such a way).

La vetero estas tiel bela, the weather is so beautiful.

Tiel mallonge li parolis, thus briefly he spoke.

Mi ti"Ovis tiel belan floron, / found such a beautiful flower.

Li prenis tiel multe, he took that much (so much).

PREPOSITIONS EXPRESSING TIME-RELATIONS.

89. The relations which prepositions express may be of
various kinds.* As in English, a certain number of prepo-
sitions primarily expressing place may also express time-
relations. Such prepositions are antaii, Cirkau, de, en,
gis, inter, post, and je (whose use in other than time-
relations will be explained later) :

Mi foriros cirkaii junio, / shall depart about June.

*As already shown, kun expresses accompaniment, per expresses instrumen-
tality, pro expresses cause, kontrafl expresses opposition, anstataii expresses
substitution, sur, apud, sub, etc., express place, dum expresses time, etc.

64 LESSOK XX.

De tiu horo mi estis via amiko, jrom that how I was your friend.

Li ne parolis al mi de tiu semajno, he did not speak to me since (from)

that week.
En la tuta monato ne negis, it did not snow in (at any time within)

the entire month.
Mi dormis gis malfrua horo, I slept until (up to) a late hour.
&is nun li ne vidis vin, until now he did not see you.
Inter marto kaj junio mi iros tien, between March and June I shall

go there.
Je malfrua horo li foriris, at a late hour he went away.
Mi iros tien je diman£o, / shall go there on Sunday.
Je tiu horo li vokis min, at that hour he called me.
§i ne restis tie post juIio, she did not stay there after July.
Post ne longe mi vokos vin, soon (after not long) I shall call you.

90. When a definite date or point in time is expressed,
antaii means "before." Wlien used with an expression of
an amount of time, it is to be translated by "ago" following
the expression (not by "before" preceding it):

Antaii dimanco mi foriros, before Sunday I shall go away.

Mi vidis lin antaii tiu horo, / saw him before that hour.

Li skribos gin antau la nova jaro, he will write it before New Year.

Antau multaj jaroj mi trovis gin, many years ago I found it.

Mi rompis gin antau longa tempo, / broke it a long time ago.

Antaii tre longe vi legis tiun libron, you read that book very long ago.

Li venis antaii ne longe, he came recently (not long ago).

Antau malmultaj jaroj li forkuris, a few years ago he escaped.

VOCABULAKT.

dimanfio, Sunday. mateno, morning.

energia, energetic. promeno, walk, promenade,

frosto, frost. rakonto, story, narrative.

je, at, on (89). ripozi, to rest, to repose.

kota, muddy. semajno, week.

labori, to work, to labor tempo, time.

laca, tired, weary. tiel, thus, so (88)

lundo, Monday. tro, too, too much.

mardo, Tuesday. ' vespero; evening.

§90] LESSON XX. 65

EN SEPTEMBRO.

Antau multaj jaroj ni preferis resti en nia malgranda
domo trans la rivero, dum la tuta autu.no. Sed nun ni
restas tie nur gis oktobro. De aiigusto gis oktobro la
vetero estas tre agrabla tie, sed baldau post tiu monato la
fortaj ventoj blovas, kaj la folioj komencas fali. La t
frosto kovras la teron, kaj baldaii negas tre ofte. Ju pli
nudaj estas la arboj, des pli malbelaj ill sajnas. La
vetero antau novembro ne estas tro nialvarma, sed post tiu
monato ni opinias ke la urbo estas pli agrabla ol domo inter
kampoj kaj arboj, trans larga rivero. La frosto, nego kaj lo
glacio kovras la teron en decembro, januaro kaj februaro.
Sed la monato septembro sajnas tre agrabla, pro siaj
multaj plezuroj. La viroj laboras energie en la kampoj,
de la mateno gis la vespero. Hi rikoltas la flavan grenon,
kaj kolektas la fruktojn. Sed je dimanfio oni ne laboras is
tiel energie, sed dormas gis malfrua horo, tial ke je tiu
tago oni ripozas. Je lundo oni komencas labori tre frue,
kaj je mardo oni ankaii laboras energie. En septembro
la vojoj ne estas tro kotaj, kaj longaj promenoj estas ofte
agrablaj. Ju pli ofte mi promenas kun miaj amikoj, des so
pli multe mi satas tiajn promenojn. Sed hierati mi e'stis
tre laca post la promeno, tial mi ripozis sur granda mola
sego. Antati ne longe la patro promenis kun mi, sed ni
ne estis tiel lacaj je tiu tago. Sajnas ke ju pli ofte ni
promenas, des malpli lacaj ni estas post la promenoj. 26
Post ne longe mi estos pli forta.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Many years ago we had a small house across the river.
2. We did not remain there during the entire year, but
only in the warmer months of the summer. 3. Often we

66 LESSON XXI. [§91

stayed until September or even until October. 4. My
younger brothers and sisters amused themselves very well
there from (the) morning until (the) evening. 5. They
amused themselves among the flowers and trees, or went
from there into the large fields. 6. Here the men work
energetically, and harvest the ripe yellow grain. 7. Only
on Sunday do they rest, because on that day one does not
work. 8. Between August and November the men work
more than in the winter. 9. In December and after that
month they rest, for (83) from that time the frost, ice and
snow cover the ground. 10. Because of the snow on the
ground, long walks are not pleasant in the winter. 11-
Recently (90) we went walking in the park across the river,
but we were so tired after that walk! 12. The longer the
walk is, the sooner one wishes to rest. 13. On Monday it
rained, so (78) we read stories and wrote letters, in a pleasant
light room in our house. 14. Before evening, however, the
sun shone, and the streets were not so muddy. 15. On
Tuesday these streets were almost dry, and soon the roads
near the river and between the fields will also be dry.
16. A few years ago those roads were very good.

LESSON XXI.

THE ACCUSATIVE OF TIME.

91. Duration of time and a date or point in time maybe
expressed not only by use of the prepositions dum, during,
and je, at, on, but also (as in English) without the use of
any preposition. When no preposition is used, the word
or words indicating time are put in the accusative case:

Li restis tie la tutan semajnon (dum la tuta semajno), he stayed there
the whole week (during the whole week).

§§92-94] LESSON XXI. 67

§i estis felica longan tempon (dum longa tempo), she was happy a

long time (during a long time; for a long time).
Ni rajdos tagon kaj nokton (dum tago kaj nokto), we shall ride a day

and a night [during a day and a night; for a day and a night).
Mi venis dimancon (je dimanfio), / came Sunday (on Sunday).
Tiun horon (je tiu horo), li forkuris, that hour (at that hour) he escaped.

92. Although generally preferable, an accusative con-
struction must be carefully placed, or avoided altogether,
if confusion with other accusatives (expressing direction
of motion, direct object, etc.) might result:

Mi volas iri Bostonon je lundo, I wish to go to Boston on Monday.
Mi volas iri al Bostono lundon, I wish to go to Boston Monday.
Lundon mi volas iri Bostonon, Monday I wish to go to Boston.

ADVERBS AND THE ACCUSATIVE OF TIME.

93. An accusative of time, as well as a temporal adverb,
may further define or be defined by another expression of
time:

Li venis longan tempon antau tiu horo, he came a long time before

that hour.
Jaron post jaro ili restis tie, year after year they stayed there.
hodiau matene, this morning. Merau nokte, last night.
hodiaii vespere, this evening. dimancon matene, Sunday morning.
hodiau nokte, tonight. lundon vespere, Monday evening.

hieraii vespere, last evening. mardon nokte, Tuesday night.

94. An accusative of time does not necessarily imply
that the act or state mentioned occurs oftener than the
instance cited. An adverb from the same root usually
gives an idea of frequency or repetition:

Li iros al ilia domo dimancon, he will go to their house Sunday.
Li iras al ilia domo dimance, he goes to their house Sundays.
Li laboris tagon kaj nokton, he worked a day and a night.
Li laboras tage kaj nokte, he works day and night (by day and by
night).

68 LEssox XXI. [§95

THE PREPOSITION POR.

95. The object or purpose with reference to which an
act is performed or a condition exists is expressed by the
preposition per, for. It directs the thought toward its
complement, contrasting thus with pro (86):

Mi havas libron por vi, / have a hook for you.

Mi ne havas la tempon por tiel longa promeno, I have not the time for

so long a {such a long) walk.
Hi faris gin por via plezuro, they did it for your pleasure.

VOCABTJLARY.

brila, brilliant. merkredo, Wednesday.

Dio, God. mezo, middle.

dividi, to divide. mondo, world.

fail, to make. pad, to be at peace.

forgesi, to forget. por, for (95).

gojo, joy. plori, to weep.

konstanta, constant. preta, ready.

kvieta, quiet, calm. ridi, to laugh.

lando, land, country. riproci, to reproach.

LA SEZONOJ KAJ LA MONDO.

Antaii tre longa tempo Dio faris la mondon. Li vidis ke
la floroj havas belajn kolorojn, ke la arboj estas altaj kaj
verdaj. Tiam li vokis la sezonojn kaj diris "Belan mon-
don mi faris por vi. Cu vi gardos gin tage kaj nokte, kaj

5 estos tre zorgaj pri gi ? " La sezonoj respondis "Jes," kaj
ridis pro gojo. Mallongan tempon ili §ajnis esti tre
felifiaj inter la arboj kaj floroj de la nova mondo. Sed ne
multajn semajnojn ili tiel zotge gardis la mondon. Ili
komencis malpaci (quarrel) inter si, de la mateno gis la

10 vespero, kaj ofte forgesis la arbojn kaj florojn. Ju pH ili
malpacis, des malpli zorge ili gardis la mondon. La mal-
konstanta printempo ne satis la kvietan vintron, kaj ploris

§95] LESSON XXI. 69

pri la malvarma nego. La varma brila somero diris ke la
aMuno estas tro malbrila. La laca autuno volis ripozi,
kaj riprocis la malkonstantan printempon pri 6i ties kota is
vetero. Pli kaj pli multe ili malpacis, kaj post ne longe
ili tute ne restis amikoj . Tiam la autuno diris "Mi ne povas
pli longan tampon labori kun vi pro la mondo. Niaj
gustoj estas tro diversaj. Tial hodiaii matene ni dividos
la mondon inter ni." La vintro respondis "Bone! Mi estas 20
preta," kaj la somero kaj la printempo ridis pro gojo.
Tiun tagon ili dividis la mondon inter si. I;a vintro kon-
struis sian domon en la plej nordaj kaj sudaj landoj . Tie
la frosto, nego kaj glacio kovras la tutan landon, dum la
tuta jaro. La brila energia somero prenis por si la mezon 25
de la mondo. Tial la vetero tie estas plej varma kaj brila.
La atituno kaj la printempo prenis por si la landoj n inter
la vintro kaj la somero. Tial la vetero estas nek tro varma
nek tro malvarma en ci tiuj landoj. Tiam la sezonoj
rakontis al Dio ke ili tiel dividis la mondon inter si. 30

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Tuesday my brother heard an interesting story, and
Wednesday evening after a pleasant walk he related it to
me. 2. The story is, that many years ago God made the
beautiful new world, and gave it to the seasons. 3. They
laughed for joy, and said that they would guard it well.
4. They were ready for pleasure, and also were willing
(volis) to work energetically for-the-sake-of the new young
world. 5. Almost a year they were happy, but these sea-
sons were too diverse, and could not long remain friends.
6. The brilliant summer wept and reproached the tired au-
tumn. 7. The autumn preferred to rest, and disliked the
muddy weather of the inconstant spring. 8. The quiet
winter concealed itself beneath the frost and soft white

70 LESSON XXII. [§§96-97

snow, and wished to sleep. 9. The longer they kept the
world among them, the more they quarreled. 10. Soon
the autumn made the proposition, "We will divide the
world." 11. Immediately that morning the seasons di-
vided the world among themselves. 12. The northern and
southern lands now belong to the winter, and the middle
of the world belongs to the summer. 1,3. The spring and
autumn took for themselves those lands between the winter
and summer.

LESSON XXII.

CLAUSES EXPRESSING DURATION OF TIME.

96. The time during which an act takes place or a con-
dition exists may be expressed not only by an adverb or
accusative of time (91), or by use of the preposition dum,
but also by a clause introduced by dum:

Li venis dum vi f orestis, he came while (during-the-time-that) you were

away.
Dum la sezonoj malpacis, ili forgesis pri la mondo, while the seasons

quarreled, they forgot about the world.
Ni ridas pro g;ojo dum negas, we laugh for joy while it is snowing.

CLAUSES EXPRESSING ANTICIPATION.

97. A clause expressing an action or condition as preced-
ing or anticipating that of the main verb is introduced by
antau ol:

Mi foriros antau ol vi venos, / shall depart before you (will) come.
Antaii ol vi riprocis lin, li ne ploris, before you reproached him, he did

not weep.
Vi ploris antafi ol vi ridis, you wept before {sooner than) you laughed.

§§98-100j LESSON XXII. 71

THE INFINITIVE WITH ANSTATA^, POR, ANTAtJ OL.

98. An infinitive may be substantively* used with
anstataii to express substitution, witii por to express pur-
pose (C/. Old English "But what went ye out /or to see,"
Matt, xi, 8), and with antau ol to express anticipation.!
It is usually translated by the English infinitive in -ing:

Anstatau resti li foriris, instead of staying he went away.

Vi malhelpas anstatau helpi min, you hinder instead of helping me.

Wi venis por helpi vin, we came to help {in order to help) you.

Mi estas preta por iri merkredon, / am ready to go {for going) Wednes-
day.

Li havos tro multe por fari, he will have too much to do.

Mi laboros antau ol ripozi, / shall work before resting.

Antaii ol foriri, li dankis min, before going away, he thanked me.

Dio faris la mondon antau ol doni |;in al la sezonoj, God made the
world before giving it to the seasons.

THE EXPRESSION OF A PART OF THE WHOLE.

99. After nouns indicating a quantity or portion of some
indefinite whole, the substantive expressing that indefinite
whole is preceded by the preposition da, of:

Estas skatolo da £erizoj tie, there is a box of cherries there.
Mi trovis grandan sakon da mono, / found a large bag of money.
Li havas teleron da viando, he has a plate of meat.
Post horoj da gojo ofte venas horoj da malgojo, after hours of joy
there often come hours of sorrow.

100. The preposition da must not be used if a quantity
or portion of a definite or limited whole is expressed. If

* Substantive is the general name for nouns and pronouns, that is, for words
which indicate persons, things, etc., and may be used as subject or object of a
verb, complement of a preposition, etc.

t The infinitive may be used with antau ol if its subject is the same as the
subject of the main verb. Otherwise the construction explained in 97 must
be used.

72 LESSON XXII. [§100

the word indicating the whole is limited by la, it is thereby
made definite:

Telero de la maturaj pomoj, a plate of the ripe apples.
Sako de la bona kafo, a sack of the good coffee. ,

VoCABULAHY.

Aleksandro, Alexander. koai, to be acquainted with.

barelo, barrel. laiita, loud.

bruo, noise. lito, bed.

da, of (99). logi, to dwell, to reside.

demandi, to inquire, to ask. nombro, number (quantity),

Diogeno, Diogenes. pura, clean.

greka, Greek. sufica, sufficient, enough.

kelkaj, several, some. veki, to wake.

kvankam, although. viziti, to visit.

Cjfono, rag. vesto, garment, clothes.

DIOGENO KAJ ALEKSANDRO GRANDA.

Antaii multaj jaroj saga greka viro, Diogeno, logis en
granda urbo. Li opiniis ke ju pli malmulte oni bezonas,
des pli felica oni estas. Per montri al la mondo ke li ne
bezonas multe, kaj ke tial li havas sufice por esti felica,

sli logis en granda malnova barelo, anstataii havi domon.
Anstatau kusi nokte sur lito au almenau sur mola tapiso,
li ec dormis en tin barelo. Oni multe parolis pri Diogeno
en la urbo, ne nur car li tiel logis, sed ankaii pro liaj sagaj
diroj. Post kelke da tempo {some time) la rego Alek-

10 sandro Granda venis tien por viziti la urbon. Dum li estis
tie li aiidis pri Diogeno, kaj demandis pri li. " Cu li logas
en la urbo?" Aleksandro diris. " Kvankam vi ne konas hn,
mi opinias ke mi volas vidi tian viron." Oni respondis
" Diogeno estas saga viro, sed anstatau logi en domo, li pre-

isferas sidi la tutan tempon en malnova barelo. Anstatau
porti (wearing) purajn vestojn, li portas nur malpurajn
cifonojn, car li opinias ke ju pli malmulte li bezonas, des

§100] LESSOlif 5XII. 73

pli feli6a li estos." Aleksandro diris " Antau ol foriri de
via lando mi vizitos tiun viron." Antati ol li foriris de la
urbo, Aleksandro iris kim nombro da amikoj por viziti20
Diogenon, kaj trovis lin en lia barelo. " Cu tiu viro volas
paroli al mi?" demandis Diogeno per lauta voco. Aleksan-
dro Granda respondis " Mi estas la rego Aleksandro, kaj
mi volas koni vin. Mi vidas ke kvankam vi estas saga vi
estas tre malrica. Cu vi ne volas kelkajn novajn vestojnss
anstataii tiuj malpuraj cifonoj?" Diogeno tuj diris
" Antau ol vi venis kaj staris inter mi kaj la suno, ci tiu
tre varme brilis sur min. Cu vi venis por fari bruon kaj
por veki min?" Aleksandro ridis kaj diris " Mi vidas ke
vi havas sufice por esti felida. Tial mi estas preta por so
foriri."

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Diogenes was a wise man who dwelt in a Greek city,
many years ago. 2. In order to show to the inconstant
world that one does not need much in order to be happy,
he did not have even a house or a bed. 3. He stayed day
and night in a big barrel, instead of residing in a house.
4. He preferred to wear old rags, instead of good clean
clothes. 5. He said " The less one needs, the happier he
will be." 6. While Alexander the Great was visiting that
city, people talked to him about Diogenes. 7. They asked
" Are you acquainted-with that wise man?" 8. Soon the
king went with a number of his friends to that-man's big
barrel, in the middle of the city. 9. Diogenes was asleep,
but the noise of the loud voices waked him, and he said
angrily " You are standing between me and the sun!
Will you not go away at once?" 10. Although several of
the men laughed, Alexander said "We did not come to
quarrel with you. 11. I see that you have enough to be
happy, so instead of talking and making a noise we shall

74 lEssoN XXIII. [§§101-103

leave (go away from) you at once." 12. Before Diogenes
could answer, Alexander had quietly walked away.

LESSON XXIII.

ADVERBS EXPRESSING A PART OF THE WHOLE.

loi. After adverbs used to indicate a quantity or portion
of some indefinite whole, as well as after nouns of such
meaning (99), the substantive expressing the indefinite
whole is preceded by the preposition da : *

Multe da bruo, much {a quantity of) noise.

Tiel malmulte da tempo, so little {such a small quantity of) time.

Kelke da pomoj, some {an indefinite number of) apples.

102. Verbs may be modified by an adverb and prepo-
sitional phrase containing da :

Li trinkis malmulte da akvo, he drank little {not much) water.
Estas multe da sablo en la dezerto, there is much sand in the desert.
Ju pli negas, des pli multe da nego ku§as sur la vojoj, the more it
snows, the more snow lies on the roads.

103. It is evident from the above examples that an
adverb followed by da has a somewhat collective sense,
indicating a general sum, mass, or portion of the whole,
without distinction of particulars. An adjective of quan-
titative meaning, on the other hand, usually indicates con-
sideration of the individuals composing the sum or mass
named:

En urbo oni havas multe da bruo, in a city one has much noise.
Ni audis multajn bruojn, we heard many {different) noises.
Tie oni havas multe da plezuro, there one has much pleasure.
Oni havas multajn plezurojn tie, people have many {different) pleas-
ures there.

*A prepositional phrase containing da, whether following a noun or an ad-
v*'':b, is sometimes called a partitive construction.

§§104-105] LESSON xxiii. 75

THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF QUANTITY.

104. The demonstrative adverb of quantity related to
the demonstrative pronoun tiu is tiom, that (this) much,
that many, that quantity, so much, etc.: —

Mi donis tiom da mono al vi, / gave that much (that amount of) money

to you.
Mi a£etis tiom da viando, / bought that much meat.
Tiom de la libroj mi legis, that many of the books I read.

RESULT CLAUSES.

105. A clause of result (also called a consecutive clause)
expresses an action or condition as due to, or resulting
from, something indicated in the main sentence, as " he is
so strong that he can do it," " I had so much pleasure that
I laughed heartily." In Esperanto a result clause is
introduced by ke, preceded (directly or in the main sen-
tence) by an adverb or adjective of manner, degree, or
quantitj' :

Diogeno estis tiel saga greka viro ke Aleksandro laudis lin, Diogenes
was such a wise Greek man that Alexander praised him.

Mi havis tiom da plezuro ke mi tre ridis, / had so much pleasure thai
I laughed very much.

&i estas tia vilago ke mi §atas logi tie, it is such {that sort of) a village
that I like to live there.

Vocabulary.

aceti, to buy. kontuzo, bruise.

asparago, asparagus. lakto, milk.

brasiko, cabbage. legomo, vegetable.

butiko, store, shop ovo, egg.

frago, strawberry. pizo, pea.

funto, pound. sabato, Saturday.

glaso, glass, tumbler. tiom, that much (i04).

Jaiido, Thursday. vendredo, Friday.

kremo, cream. vilago, village.

76 LESSON xxxu. [§105

EN LA BUTIKO.

Hodiau matene mi iris kun la patrino al la plej granda
butiko en nia vilago. Tie si afietis tiom da legomoj kaj
fruktoj ke ni tute ne povis porti ilin. Tial juna knabo
venis kun ni, kaj portis kelke da ili por ni. La patrino ne

5 acetis tiel multe je vendredo, sed hodiau estas sabato, kaj si
volis aceti legomoj n por dimanco, 6ar dimance oni ne povas
iri en la butikojn. Tial sabate oni kutime a6etas sufice
por la mangoj de sabato kaj dimanfio. Meze de la butiko
staras multe da bareloj. En ci tiuj oni trovas grandan

10 nombron da f resaj puraj legomoj . La patrino acetis tiel
multe da asparago kaj novaj pizoj, kaj tiel grandan sakon
da terpomoj, ke la tablo restis preskaii nuda. Mi vidis
brasikon tie, sed tiun legomon mi malsatas, kvankam oni
diras ke gi estas tre bona legomo. Antaii ol foriri de la

15 butiko la patrino acetis kelke da ovoj, kaj rigardis la
fruktojn en bareloj apud la pordo. Ili sajnis tiel bonaj ke si
acetis kelkajn maturajn pomojn kaj skatolon da fragoj.
Dum oni donis al si la fruktojn, mi acetis kelkajn funtojn
da sukero. Tiam ni estis pretaj por foriri el la butiko.

3oSur la vojo ni aiidis tiel grandan bruon ke mi lasis la pa-
trinon kaj kuris trans la straton. Mi trovis tie infanon,la
filon de nia najbaro. Li faris la bruon, 6ar li falls de la arbo
antaii sia domo, kaj tre laute ploris. Li diris al mi ke li
havas multajn kontuzojn sur la kapo. Car mi bone

85 konas la infanon, mi demandis " Cu vi volas grandan
rugan pomon? Mi havas tian pomon por vi." Li tuj
kaptis la pomon, kaj mi foriris. Tiam la patrino kaj mi
iris al la domo.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

I. I shall go to the village today with my younger sister.
2. We wish to buy some eggs, vegetables and fruit for

§106] LESSON XXIV. 77

Mother. 3. Mother prefers to remain in the house, be-
cause it is raining. 4. It rained on Thursday and Friday,
but today it is not raining very much. 5. The air is warm
and pleasant, and we shall carry umbrellas with us. 6.
We shall buy some new peas, a box of strawberries and
several pounds of sugar. 7. Thus we shall have enough
for the meals of Saturday and Sunday. 8. I wonder
whether we shall see such asparagus and such cabbage on
the tables or in the barrels. 9. Although I do not often
eat such vegetables, Father and Mother are very fond ot
{multe satas) both cabbage and asparagus. 10. We shall
also buy enough milk for several glasses of milk, and we
shall need much cream for the strawberries. 11. It seems
that we shall buy such a number of vegetables that we
cannot carry them. 12. While we were standing near the
door, ready to go toward the village (46), we heard a loud
voice. 13. A child was standing in the street, and crying.
14. He wished to go with his mother to visit some friends.
15. 1 suppose that a noise on the street waked him, and he
did not wish to remain in his bed.

LESSON XXIV.
THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN.

106. The interrogative pronoun (and pronominal ad-
jective) is kiu, who, which. .Since the use of this pronoun
indicates a question, the sentence containing it does not
need the interrogative adverb cu (30) :

Kiu vokas vln ? Who calls youf

Kiun vi vokas? Whom do you calif

Kiuj el vi vokis nin ? Which {ones) of you called us?

Kiujn li lielpis? Whom (which ones) did he help?

Kiun tagon vi venos? What day will you come?

78 LESSON XXIV. [§§107-109

Kiujn legomojn vi preferas? What vegetables do you prefer?
Mi miras kiun libron vi acetis, / wonder which hook you bought?

107. The interrogative pronoun kiu has a possessive or
genitive form kies, whose:

En kies domo vi logas? In whose house do you reside?
Kies amikojn vi vizitis? Whose friends did you visit?

THE PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE.

108. A participle is a verbal adjective, as in "a crying
child." It agrees like other adjectives with the word
modified (19, 24). The participle from a transitive verb
(22) may take a direct object, and a participle expressing
motion may be followed by an accusative indicating direc-
tion of motion (46). The present active participle, ex-
pressing what the word modified is doing, ends in -anta,
as vidanta, seeing, iranta, going:

La ploranta infano volas dormi, the crying child wishes to sleep.
Mi vidas la falantajn foliojn, / see the falling leaves.
Kiu estas la virino a£etanta ovojn ? Who is the woman buying eggs? .
Mi parolis al la viroj irantaj vilagon, / talked to the men {who were)
going toward the village.

COMPOUND TENSES.

109. A participle may be used predicatively with a form
of esti, as Mi estas demandanta, I am asking, La viro estas

acetanta, the man is buying. Such combinations are called
compound tenses, in contrast to the simple or aoristic*
tenses. Compound tenses occur less often in Esperanto
than in English, and an aoristic Esperanto tense may often
be translated by an English compound tense, as La birdoj

*An aoristic tense consists of but one word (ending in -as, -OS, etc.) and ex-
presses an act or state as a whole, without specifying whether it is finished, still
in progress, or yet begim.

§§110-111] LESSON XXIV. 79

flugas, the birds are flying. When used to form a compound
tense, the verb esti is called the auxiliary verb. No other
verb is ever used as an auxiliary (a simpler method than in
English, which uses be have, do, will, shall, would, etc.).

THE PROGRESSIVE PRESENT TENSE.

110. The compound tense formed by using the present
active participle with the present tense of esti is called the
progressive present tense. It differs from the aoristic present
by expressing an action as definitely in progress, or a
condition as continuously existing, at the moment of
speaking. The conjugation of vidi in this tense is as fol-
lows:

mi estas vidanta, / am seeing.

vi estas vidanta, you are seeing.

li (li, gi) estas vidanta, he (she, it) is seeing.

ni estas vidantaj, we are seeing.

vi estas vidantaj, you (plural) are seeing.

ili estas vidantaj, they are seeing.

THE SUFFIX -EJ-.

111. Words expressing the place where the action indi-
cated by the root occurs, or where the object indicated by
the root may be found, are formed by inserting the suffix
-ej- before the noun-ending:*

fievalejo, stable (from Cevalo, horse).

dormejo, dormitory (from dormi, to sleep).

herbejo, meadow (from herbo, grass).

lo^ejo, lodging-place, dwelling (from. Io|;i, to dwell, to lodge).

* Similar formations are made in English with the sufGx -yt as bakery, bindery,
grocery, etc. This suifix is equivalent to the -ei in German Backerei, bakery,
Druckerd, printing-office, etc., and to the -ie in French patisserie, pastry-shop,
imprimerie, printing-shop, etc.

80 LESSON XXIY. [§111

VOCABULAKT.

alia, other, another, kuiri, to cook.

baki, to bake. kurteno, curtain.

dika, thick. kutimo, custrjm.

facila, easy. leciono, lesson.

familio, family. lerni, to learn.

kanapo, sofa. pano, bread.

kies, whose (107). persono, person.

kiu, who (106), salono, parlor.

EN NIA DOMO.

Oni ofte miras kies domo en nia vilago estas plej bela,
kaj kiu domo estas la plej agrabla logejo. Nia domo ne
estas tre granda, sed gi estas nova kaj ni multe §atas gin.
Gia salono estas granda, kun belaj puraj kurtenoj ko-
svrantaj la fenestrojn, kaj inola dika tapiso kovranta la
plankon. Ci tie estas kelkaj segoj, malgranda tablo, kaj
longa kanapo. Persono j vizitantaj nin kutime sidas en
6i tiu 6ambro, kaj dum ni estas sidantaj tie ni nur parolas,
anstataii skribi au legi. Alia cambro en la domo estas tre

Joluma kaj agrabla, sed malpli granda. Ci tie staras tablo
sufifie granda por nia tuta familio, kaj en tiu cambro oni
mangas. Ofte ni restas tie longan tempon post la mango,
car la patro rakontas interesajn rakontojn al ni, kaj ni
multe ridas, kaj demandas pri tiuj rakontoj, kaj tiel bone

isamuzas nin ke mi preskaii forgesas pri miaj lecionoj.
Tamen mi havas multe da lecionoj por lerni, kaj ili tute ne
estas facilaj. Je tre frua horo matene mi iras al la lernejo,
kun miaj fratoj kaj fratinoj. Nur sabate kaj diman6e ni ne
iras tien. La lernejo estas malnova kaj malgranda, sed

so oni estas nun konstruanta no van pli grandan lernejon apud
nia domo. Dum la infanoj estas lernantaj siajn lecionojn
tie, la patrino kutime iras al la bakejon, por aceti sufice da
pano, por la mangoj de la tago. Ofte si iras ankaii al

§111] LESSON XXIV. 81

aliaj butikoj. Jaudon si acetis kelke da novaj pizoj, kaj
da asparago. Vendredon si afietis kelkajn funtojn das
sukero, skatolon da fragoj, kaj sufi6e da kremo kaj lakto.
Hodiau §i estas acetanta brasikon kaj sakon da terpomoj.
Si volas kuiri tre bonaii mangon, tamen si havas tro multe
por fari en la kuirejo, car si ne havas servistinon.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Who is the woman sitting on the sofa in the parlor?
2. I can not easily see her, but I hear her voice. 3. I
wonder whose voice that is. 4. However, I think that it
is the voice of a friend of Mother's. 5. Now I can see her,
although she does not see me. 6. I am well acquainted
with her. 7. She is a friend of our whole family, and is
visiting a neighbor of ours (najbaron nian) in this city.
8. My sister is sitting on the sofa in another room, and
learning her lessons. 9. Soon she will go to school. 10.
Whose book is she reading? 11. That thick book is mine,
but the other books on the table near her are hers. 12.
She prefers to sit in the sewing-room (iii) to read or write
(98), because the curtains in front of the windows are not
too thick, and so (78) that room is very light and pleasant.
13. She also likes to look at the falling snow, and the men
and women walking on the muddy streets. 14. On ac-
count of the cold weather, people are wearing thick clothes.
15. The men and boys are keeping their hands in their
pockets while they walk. 16. The girls walking toward
the school are friends of my sister's. 17. In that school
they learn to cook. Soon they will be able to bake bread,
and even to cook a whole meal. 18. 1 think such a custom
is very good. 19. Many persons can not cook well enough
(sufiSe bone).

82 LESSON XXV. [§§112-114

LESSON XXV.
THE INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVE.

112. The interrogative adjective related to the inter-
rogative pronoun kiu, is kia, what kind of, what sort of:

Kiajn vestojn li portis? What sort of clothes did he wear?
Kian panon vi preferas? What kind of bread do you prefer?
Mi miras kia persono li estas, / wonder what sort of a person he is,
Kia vetero estas? What sort of weather is it?
Kia plezuro ! What a pleasure!

THE IMPERFECT TENSE.

113. The compound tense formed by using the present
active participle with the past tense of esti represents an
act or condition as in progress in past time, but not per-
fected, and is called the imperfect tense. The conjugation
of vidi in this tense is as follows:

mi estis vidanta, I was seeing.

vi estis vidanta, you were seeing.

li (§i, gi) estis vidanta, he (she, it) was seeing.

ni estis vidantaj, we were seeing.

▼i estis vidantaj, you were seeing.

ili estis vidantaj, they were seeing.

THE PROGRESSIVE FUTURE TENSE.

114. The compound tense formed by using the present
active participle with the future tense of esti represents an
act or condition as in progress — or a condition as existing
continuously — at a future time, and is called the progressive
future tense. The conjugation of vidi in this tense is as
follows :

mi estos vidanta, I shall be seeing.
vi estos vidanta, you will be seeing.
li (ti, gi) estos vidanta, he (she, it) will be seeing.

gll5-116]

LESSON XXV.

83

ni estos vidantaj, we shall he seeing.
vi estos vidantaj, you will be seeing.
ili estos vidantaj, they will he seeing.

SALUTATIONS AND EXCLAMATIONS.

115. When the word or words expressing a salutation or
exclamation may be regarded as the direct object of a verb
which is not expressed, these words are put in the accusa-
tive case:

Bonan matenon! Good morning! (I wish you " good morning.")
Bonan nokton! Good night! (I wish you a " good night.")
Multajn salutojn al via patro ! (I send) many greetings to your father!
Dankon! Thanks! (I give to you " thanks.")
Cielon! Heavens! (I invoke the " heavens.")

WORD FORMATION.

116. The majority of roots have such a meaning that
at least two kinds of words, and often three or four, may
be formed from them by use of the general endings for
verbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs. (Each root will
hereafter be quoted but once in the vocabularies, with a
hyphen separating it from the ending with which it appears
first in the reading lesson, or with which it is most fre-
quently used.) Following are examples of word forma-
tion from roots already familiar:

Verb.

Noun.

Adjective.

Adverb.

brili

brilo

brila

brile

to shine

shine, brilliance

shining, brilliant

brilliantly

flori

floro

flora

flora

to hloom

flower, blossom

floral

florally

toji

gojo

goja

goje

to rejoice
kontuzi

joy, gladness
kontuzo

joyful, glad

gladly

to bruise

bruise, contusion

tuto

tuta

tute

whole

entire, whole.

all

entirely

84 LESSON XXV. [§11?

KONI AND sen.

117. The verb koni, which means " to know " in the
sense of " to be acquainted with," is used in speaking of
persons, languages, places, etc. Koni always has a direct
object. It is never followed by ke, cu, kiu, or any other
interrogative word. Scii means " to know " in the sense
of " to be aware," " to have knowledge." It is not used
in speaking of persons.*

Cu vi konas tiun personon? Do you know that person?

Mi scias ke li estas nia najbaro, / know that he is our neighbor.

Mi bone konas Bostonon, / am well acquainted with Boston.

Mi ne scias £u li konas ilin, / do not know whether he knows them.

VOCABULAET.

av-0, grandfather. kia, what kind of (112).

buked-o, bouquet. liagv-o, language.

ekzamen-o, examination. nep-o, grandson.

ferm-i, to dose. nu! Well!

frap-i, to strike, to knock. paper-o, paper.

geometri-o, geometry. salut-i, to greet.

german-a, German. sci-i,.to know (117).

hejm-o, home. stud-i, to study.

LA NEPO VIZITAS LA AVINON.

Hierau matene mi vizitis la avinon. Sia hejmo estas
apud la granda nova bakejo. Mi vidis sin tra lafenestro,
6ar la kurtenoj kovrantaj ^in estas tre maldikaj. Si estis
sidanta sur la kanapo, kaj skribanta per plumo sur granda
5 papero. Antau ol frapi sur la pordo mi voids sin kaj diris
" Bonan matenon, kara avino!" Tuj si demandis " Kiu
estas tie? Kies vo6on mi atidas?" Mi respondis " Estas

*Koni is equivalent to German knnnen, French connaitre, Spanish conocer-
while scii is equivalent to German wissen, French savoir, Spanish saber.

§117] LESSON XXV. 85

via nepo. Cu vi ne konas mian vo6on?" Antaii ol si
povis veni al la pordo mi es'tis malfermanta gin. Mi iris
en la salonon kaj donis al la avino bukedon da floroj.io
" La patrino donas 6i tiujn al vi, kun siaj plej bonaj sa-
lutoj," mi diris. La avino respondis " Nu, kia plezuro!
Multan dankon al si pro la bela bukedo, kaj ankau al vi,
6ar vi portis gin ci tien por mi!" Dum si estis metanta la
florojn en glason da akvo la avino diris "Nu, kiajn lecio-is
nojn vi havis hodiaii en la lernejo?" Mi respondis ke mi
bone konis la lecionojn, car mi zorge studis ilin. "Niestas
lernantaj la germanan lingvon," mi diris, " kaj ju pli longe
ni studas gin, des pli multe mi gin §atas, kvankam gi estas
tre malfacila." Mi rakontis ankaii pri la lecionoj de ge-3o
ometrio, kaj aliaj lecionoj, sed diris ke la ekzamenoj estos
baldaii komencantaj. " Je tiu tempo," mi diris, "mi estos
skribanta la respondojn al la ekzamenoj, preskaii la tutan
semajnon." La avino demandis kun intereso "Cu la de-
mandoj de la ekzamenoj estos malfacilaj?" Mi respondis 25
"Mi ne scias, sed mi timas ke ni estos tre lacaj post tiom
da laboro." Post kelke da aliaj demandoj kaj respondoj,
mi opiniis ke estas la horo por foriri. ' Dum mi estis fori-
ranta, la avino diris "Multajn salutojn al la tuta familio!"
Mi dankis sin, diris " Bonan tagon!" kaj tiam foriris. 30

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. What sort of noise do I hear outside the door? 2.
Are some of my friends knocking? 3. We were talking
yesterday about the examinations in our school, and these
boys came home to study with me. 4. 1 shall go to the door
to open it and to greet my friends. 5. Good morning!
Did you come to study geometry, or the German language?
6. Which of these is usually more difficult, and in which
will the examination be the longer? 7. Well, we brought

86 LESSON XXVI. [§§118-119

our German books, because we prefer to study these. 8.
We wish to know this language thoroughly. 9. We shall
go into the writing-room (m), for (83) some friends of
my grandmother are in the parlor. 10. We can hear their
voices here, and we can not study very well while they are
talking. 11. They were carrying many flowers, and gave
a beautiful bouquet to my grandmother. 12. She said
" Many thanks for (86) the sweet violets! In whose gar-
den did they bloom?" 13. Her friend's granddaughter is a
friend of my youngest sister. 14. Well, shall we begin to
study? Have you enough paper, and have you a good
pen? 15. I shall close this other door, because they are
baking bread in the kitchen, and cooking meat. 16. We
shall be hearing the voices of so many persons that I know
that we can not study.

LESSON XXVI.
THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF PLACE.

118. The interrogative adverb of place, related to the
interrogative pronoun kiu is kie, where, in (at) what place.
If the verb in the sentence expresses motion toward the
place indicated by kie, the ending -n is added, forming
kien, whither (where):

Kie li estis kaj kien oni forpelis lin? Where was he and whither did

they drive him {away)f
Li miros kie lia nepo estas, he will wonder where his grandson is.
Mi ne scias kien li kuris, / do not know where (whither) he ran.

THE PAST ACTIVE PARTICIPLE.

119. The past active participle, (for the characteristics
of a participle see 108) expressing- what the word modified

§§120-122] LESSON XXVI. 87

did or has done, ends in -inta, as vidinta, having seen, irinta,

gone, having gone:

La falintaj folioj estas brunaj, the fallen leaves are hrown.

Kiu estas la viro salutinta nin? who is the man having greeted (who

greeted) us?
Oni forgesas la foririntajn personojn, one forgets the departed persons

{the versons who have gone away).

ADVERB BERIVATION FROM PREPOSITIONS.

120. Adverbs may be derived from prepositions whose
sense permits, by use of the adverb ending -e :

Antaue li studis la geometrion, previously he studied geometry.
Poste li studis la germanan, afterwards he studied German.
Li marSis antaue, ne malantaue, he walked in front, not behind.
Duma la viroj staris cirkaue, meanwhile the men stood roundabout.
Hi venis kune kaj sidis apude, they came together and sat near hy.

ADVERBS EXPRESSING DIRECTION OF MOTION.

121. An adverb expressing place or direction is given the
ending -n when used with a verb expressing motion toward
that place or direction (69, 118, etc.):

Cu li rajdis norden au suden? Did he ride north or south(ward)?
Ni kuris antauen, ne malantauen, we ran forward, not back.
La bukedo falls eksteren kaj suben, the bouquet fell out and under-
neath.
Li estis mar§anta hejmen, he was walking home (homeward).*

THE SUFFIX -EG-.

122. The suffix -eg- may be added to a root to augment

* The adverb may precede the verb and be iinited with it by simple juxtapo-
sition, if the resulting word is not too long :

Li hejmeniris, he went home (Jie " home-went ")•
Ni antaueniros, we shall advance {go forward').
La bukedo subenfalis, the bouquet fell underneath-

88 LESSON XXVI. [§122

or intensify its meaning, thus forming an augmentative of
the root:

barelego, hogshead (from barelo, barrel).

bonega, excellent (from bona, good).

malbonege, wickedly, wretchedly (from malbone, badly, poorly).

domego, mansion (from domo, house).

ploregi, to sob, to wail (from plori, to weep).

treege, exceedingly (from tre, very).

VOCABULABY.

aer-0, air. pez-a, heavy.

danc-i, to dance. pOlv-o, dust.

fulm-o, lightning. sekv-i, to follow.

gut-o, drop (of water, etc.). serc-i, to hunt for, to search.

kie, where (ii8). silent-a, still, silent.

okaz-i, to happen, to occur. subit-a, sudden.

okul-o, eye. tegment-o, roof.

pec-o, piece. tondr-o, thunder.

LA PLUVEGO.

Nu, kia pluvego okazis hieraii vespere! Post kvieta
varmega mateno, subite multaj nuboj kovris la cielon.
La aero sajnis peza, kaj estis tute silenta kelkan tempon.
Tiam forte blovanta vento frapegis la arbojn, kaj komencis

5 fortege skui la brancojn. Multege da polvo kaj malgrandaj
pecoj da papero dancis kaj flugis cirkaiien en la aero, kaj
ankaii cielen. Falls tiam kelkaj grandaj gutoj da pluvo,
kaj ni sciis ke la pluvego estas venanta. Ni malfermis niaj n
ombrelojn, kaj kuris antauen, por iri hejmen antati ol

lofalos multe da pluvo. La fulmo tiel ofte brills ke ni fermis
la okulojn pro gi, kaj treege gin timis. Preskau tuj la
tondro sekvis gin. Tondris tiom kaj tiel laiitege ke la
bruo sajnis frapi kontraii niajn kapojn. Tiam komencis
subite pluvegi, sed je tiu tempo ni estis preskau sub la

§122] LESSON SXVI. 89

tegmento de nia domo. Dume la vento pli kaj pli blovegis, 15
kaj ju pli forte gi blovis, des pli peze la gutoj da pluvo
falls teren, kun multege da bruo. Mi opinias ke mi mal-
ofte antaiie vidis tian pluvegon. La sekvintan tagon mi
promenis tre frue, kaj vidis ke la pordego al la gardeno de
mia avo estas kusanta sur la tero. Apude mi vidis vento- 20
flagon falintan de la tegmento de tiu granda 6evalejo.
Velkintaj floroj kusis sur la tero 6irkaft mi, kaj inter ill
estis bran6oj falintaj de la arboj, 6ar la grandega forto de
la vento forrompis ec ci tiujn. Sur malgranda bran6o
restis nesto, sed kie estis la birdoj! Mi ser6is la junajnss
birdojn sed tute ne povis trovi ilin, tial mi opinias ke
ili forflugis antaii ol la ventoj forrompis de la arbo ilian
malgrandan hejmon. Mi ne scias kien ili flugis, sed mi
opinias ke ili flugis suden al la arboj en tiu granda kampo
trans la rivero. so

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. While we were walking home (121) from school yes-
terday, it rained very suddenly. 2. What a storm it was!

3. We were talking about the lessons in geometry, and
were looking at these books about the German language.

4. So we did not see the clouds in (on) the sky. 5. Well,
we forgot about examinations and began to wonder where
to go. 6. We did not know whether we bad enough time
to run even to Grandfather's house before it would rain.
7. Many papers fell out of our books, and the wind caught
them. 8. The wind chased them away from us, and they
seemed to dance around in the air. 9. However, we easily
caught and gathered them, and then we ran forward. 10.
Suddenly it thundered very loudly, and we saw the bril-
liant lightning in the sky. 11. We almost closed our eyes
for the lightning. 12. Big drops of rain fell heavily and

90 LESSON sxviL [§§123-124

struck the dust violently. 13. The air was heavy and
still then, and the storm immediately followed the few
drops of rain. 14. We hastened across the street, and ran
faster and faster. 15. We were exhausted (122) and our
clothes were exceedingly wet before we were in the house.
16. The rain was dropping from the roof, but we ran
through it, and knocked on the door. 17. We rested some
time here, before going home.

LESSON XXVII.

THE INTERROGATIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB

123. The interrogative temporal adverb, related to the
interrogative pronoun kiu, is kiam, when, at what time ?

Kiam li sercos min? When will he look for mef

Oni miras kiam U venos, they wonder when he is coming (will come).

Kiam falis tiuj gutoj da piuvo ? When did those drops of rain fall f

THE PERFECT TENSE.

124. The compound tense formed by using the past
active participle with the present tense of esti is called the
perfect tense. It differs from the aoristic past tense (35)
and from the imperfect (113) by expressing an act or con-
dition as definitely completed or perfected. The conju-
gation of vidi in the perfect tense is as follows:

mi estas vidinta, / have seen (I am having-seen) .

vi estas vidinta, you have seen {you are having-seen).

U (si, gi) estas vidinta, he {she, it) has seen {is having-seen).

ni estas vidintaj, we have seen {we are having-seen).

vi estas vidintaj, you have seen (you are having-seen).

ili estas vidintaj, they have seen {they are having-seen).

§§125-127] LESSOR xsvii. 91

THE PREPOSITION CE.

125. The general situation of a person, object or action
is expressed by the use of the preposition ce, at, at the
house of, in the region or land of, among, with, etc.:

Li staris silente ce la pordego, he stood silently at the gate.
Li logas £e mia avo, he lives (dwells) at my grandfather's.
Hi estas ce la lernejo, they are at the school.
Li restos £e amikoj, he will stay with (at the house of) friends.
Li vizitos ce ni morgau, he will visit at-our-house tomorrow.

THE SUFFIX -AR-.

126. Words expressing a collection, group or assemblage
of similar persons or things, as forest (collection of trees),
army (assemblage of soldiers), etc., may be formed by the
use of the suffix -ar-. This suffix may itself be used as a
root to form arc, group, flock, etc., are, in a group, by
throngs, etc. Words formed with the suffix -ar- are called
collectives:

arbaro, forest (from arbo, tree).

fievalaro, herd of horses (from cevalo, horse).

kamparo, country (from kampo, field).

libraro, collection of books, library (from libro, booh).

amikaro, circle of friends (from amiko, friend).

TEMPO AND FOJO.

127. The general word for "time" in the sense of dura-
tion, or suitability (as " the proper time "), is tempo.
The word fojo, time, occasion, refers to the performance or
occurrence of an act or event, in repetition or series:

Mi ne havas multe da tempo, I have not much time.

Li venis multajn fojojn, kaj la lastan fojon li restis longan tampon,

he came many times, and the last time he remained a long time.

92 LESSON XXVII. [§128

Kelkajn fojojn laute tondris, several times it thundered loudly.
Multe da fojoj ni fermis la okulojn pro la fulmo, many times we closed
our eyes on account of the lightning.

THE ORTHOGRAPHY OF PROPER NOUNS.

128. Proper nouns, that is, nouns which are names of
persons, cities, countries, etc., are given Esperanto spelling
if they are names of continents, countries, large or very
well-known cities, or if they are first (Christian) names of
persons, as Azio, Asia, Skotlando, Scotland, Bostono,
Boston, Johano, John, Mario, Mary. Surnames and names
of places which are small or not well known are more often
quoted in the national spelling. The pronunciation may
be indicated in parentheses, as Mt. Vernon (Maunt Vernon),
Roberto Bruce (Brus), Martinique (Martinik'), etc.

Vocabulary.

arane-o, spider. ramp-i, to crawl.

Azi-o, Asia. rekt-a, direct, straight.

fie, ai (125). rimark-i, to notice.

fin-o, end, ending. send-i, to send. >•

foj-o, tim£, instance (127). Skotland-o, Scotland.

Mam, when (123). soldat-o, soldier.

pacienc-o, patience. sukces-i, to succeed.

pied-o, foot. supr-e, above.

plafon-o, ceiling. venk-i, to conquer.

ROBERTO BRUCE KAJ LA ARANEO.

Oni rakontas la sekvantan interesan rakonton pri
Roberto Bruce, rego antaii multaj jaroj en Skotlando.
Okazis ke li estis rigardantala soldataron de siaj malamikoj,
de la fenestro de granda cevalejo. Por povi rigardi plej
5 facile, kaj ankau por sin kasi, li forsendis siajn soldatojn
kaj restis la tutan tagon sub tiu tegmento. Kvankam la

§128] LESSON" XXVII. 93

6e vale jo estis granda gi estis malnova, kaj li opiniis ke la
malamikoj ne ser6os liii tie. Je la fino de la tago li subite
rimarkis araneon sur la muro apud si. La araneo estis
rampanta supren, sed baldau gi falls en la polvon 6e liaj lo
piedoj. Tuj la falinta araneo komencis alian fojon supren
rampi. Alian fojon gi falls teren, sed post ne longe gi
komencis rampi alian fojon. " Kia pacienco!" diris la
rego al si. " Mi ne sciis ke la araneo havas tiel multe da
pacienco! Sed kien gi nun estas falinta?" Li rigardisis
cirkaiien kaj fine (finally) li vidis la falintan araneon.
Kun granda surprizo li rimarkis ke gi estas komencanta
supren rampi. Multajn fojojn gi supren rampis, kaj tiom
da fojoj gi falls malsupren. Fine, tamen, gi sukcese ram-
pis gis la plafono. La rego malfermis la bu§on pro sur- 20
prizo, kaj diris al si " Kiam antaiie mi vidis tiom da pa-
cienco! Mi opinias ke la fina sukceso de tiu malgranda
araneo donas al mi bonegan lecionon. Mi estas ofte mal-
sukcesinta, sed malpli ofte ol tiu araneo sur la muro. Mi
estas perdinta multe da soldatoj, kaj la malamikoj estas 35
venkintaj multajn fojojn, 6ar ili havas multe pli grandan
nombron da soldatoj . Tamen, mi estos pacienca, 6ar oni
ne scias kiam 11 fine sukcesos. " La sekvintan tagon, la rego
Roberto Bruce komencis treege labori kontrati siaj mal-
amikoj. Post mallonga tempo li bone sukcesis, kaj tuteao
venkis la malamikoj n en granda venko 6e Bannockburn
(Banokb'rn).

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Although the enemies of Robert Bruce conquered
him many times, he finally conquered them in Scotland,
because he was patient and very courageous. 2. He was
sitting in a large stable, to hide (himself), and also in order
to (98) look directly from its roof (at) the soldiery (126)

94 LESSON XXVIII. [§§129-130

of the enemy. 3. At the end of the day he noticed a spider
crawhng up (ward) on the wall. 4. The spider fell suddenly
into the dust and lay at the king's feet, but soon began to
crawl up. 5. " Where does it wish to go?" said the king
to himself. 6. " What patience it shows! It has crawled
up and fallen down a great many times." 7. Finally how-
ever the spider succeeded, and crawled up to the ceiling.
8. The king said that he had learned a lesson from the pa-
tient spider. 9. He said " Although the enemy have con-
quered many times, because they have a larger number of
soldiers, I shall finally succeed against them." 10. Soon
it happened that the wind blew violently, and a rainstorm
occurred. 11. The blast shook the foliage (126) on the
trees, and broke away many small branches. 12. A group
of soldiers ran right (rekte) toward the stable, and Robert
Bruce was much afraid that they would find him. 13.
But they merely stole the horses there, and rode away.

LESSON XXVIII.

THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OP MOTIVE OR
REASON.

129. The interrogative adverb of motive or reason re-
lated to the interrogative pronoun kiu is kial, whij, where-
fore, for what reason:

Kial la araneo supren rampis ? why did the spider crawl up ?
Mi demandos kial li rimarkis gin, I will ask why he noticed it.

THE INFINITIVE AS SUBJECT.

130. The infinitive may be used as the subject of a verb.*
Any modifier of the infinitive is necessarily adverbial. An

* Cf. the complementary infinitive (28), equivalent to the object of a verb,
and the use of the infinitive after the prepositions por, anstataii, antaii ol (98).

§§131-132] LESSON xxviii. 95

indefinite personal object (or pronominal complement of a
preposition) after an infinitive used as subject is expressed
by the reflexive pronoun si:

Promeni estas granda plezuro, to go walking is a great pleasure.

Promeni estas agrable, to go walking is pleasant.

Cu estas facile rigardi la'plafonon? Is it easy to look at the ceiling ?

Estas bone sin helpi, it is well to help oneself.

Paroli al si estas malsage, to talk to oneself is silly.

PRESENT ACTION WITH PAST INCEPTION.

131. A present act or state which began in the past is
expressed by the present tense (instead of by the past as in
English):*

Mi estas £i tie de lundo, / have been (I am) here since Monday.

De Marto mi studas tiun lingvon, since March I have been (7 am)
studying that language.

Ill estas amikoj de tiu tago, they have been {they are) friends from
that day.

Ni logas tie de antaii kelkaj monatoj, we have been living {we are liv-
ing) here since some months ago.

THE SUFFIX -UL-.

132. The suffix -ul- is used to form nouns indicating a
person characterized by or possessing the distinguishing
trait, character or quality in the root : f

junulo, a youth, a young man (from juna, young).
belulino, a beauty, a belle (from bela, beautiful).
maljunulo, an old man (from maljuna, old).
safulo, a sage, a wise man (from. sa|;a, wise).
malrifiulino, a poor woman (from malrica, poor).

* Cf. German eristschon lange hier, he has already been here a long time, French
je suis id depuis deux ans, I have been here two years, etc.

fC/. the Enghsh adjectives quer-ul-ous, cred-ul-ous, garr-ul-ous, etc., and the
Latin nouns fara~ul-us, a servant, fig-ul-us, a potter, and leg-ul-us, a gatherer.

96 MISSON XXVIIL [§133

LO6I AND VIVI.

133. The verb logi, to reside, to dwell, to lodge, must not
bs confused with vivi, which means to live in the sense of
" to be ahve:"

Li lofas apude, he lives near hy.
Li vivis longan tempon, he lived a long time.

Vivi felifie estas pli bone ol lo§;i rice, to live happily is better than to
live (lodge) richly.

Vocabulary.

afabl-a, amiable, affable. Mat, why (129).

afer-o, thing, matter, affair. mejl-o, mile.

balanc-i, to balance, to nod. ' okulhar-o, eyelash.

barb-o, beard. okulvitr-oj, spectacles.

batal-o, battle. pens-i, to think, to ponder.

brov-o, eyebrow. vang-o, cheek.

bukl-o, curl (of hair). verand-o, porch, veranda.

har-o, hair, viv-i, to live (133).

PRI LA AVO KAJ LA AVINO.

Mia avo estas tre afabla persono. Li estas maljunulo
kun blankaj haroj kaj blanka barbo. Li havas bluajn oku-
lojn, kaj la brovoj super ili estas e6 pli blankaj ol liaj haroj.
Kvankam li logas en nia vilago de antati kelkaj jaroj, li

santatie logis en Skotlando. Antaii multaj jaroj li estis
soldato, kaj li ofte parolas al mi pri la bataloj kaj venkoj de
tiu tempo. Sidi kviete sur la verando kaj rakonti tiajn
rakontojn al la nepo sajne donas al li multe da plezuro.
Multajn fojojn je la fiho de la tago li sidas tie, kaj parolas

10 pri tiaj aferoj gis malf rua horo de la vespero. Sidi ce 'liaj
piedoj kaj aiidi liajn rakontojn estas tre interese al, mi.
Komence, dum mi estas ce li, mi kutime demandas " Cu oni
sukcesis en tiu batalo?" Tuj li balancas la kapon kaj
komencas pacience rakonti pri la venkoj kaj malvenkoj

IB (defeats). Li malofte respondas " Mi ne scias," al miai

§133] LESSON XXVIII. 97

demandoj " Kiam," kaj " Kial." Kelkajn fojojn li diras
" Mi havas tiun opinion, sed mi ne bone scias pri la tuta
afero, kaj mi miras cu aliaj personoj scias pli bone." Car
li estas multe studinta kaj pensinta, liaj opinioj estas
treege interesaj. Li gojas tial ke mi demandas pri aferoj so
okazintaj (things that have happened), 6ar tiaj demandoj
montras ke mi ankatt pensas pri ili. Mia avino estas mal-
granda, kun belaj bukloj da tute blankaj haroj. Si havas
belajn brunajn okulojn, kun longaj nigraj okulharoj.
Oni diras ke antaii multaj jaroj §i estis belulino. E6 nun 25
estas plezure rigardi sin, kaj vidi §iajn rugajn vangojn.
De antau kelkaj jaroj si portas okulvitrojn por legi aii
skribi ati kudri, kaj si bezonas ripozon post malmulte da
laboro. Promeno de e6 mejlo estas tro longa nun per la
avino. Oni diras ke si ne vivos tre longan tempon, kaj tia .30
penso donas malgojon al ni, car ni treege amas la afablan
paciencan avinon.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Our grandfather is an old man, and they say that he
will not live much longer. 2. He is not very strong, and
can not take {fari) long walks. 3. The mile between his
house and ours now seems long to him. 4. He prefers to
sit quietly in the house or on the veranda, and think,
nearly all day long (the whole day). 5. He is very amiable,
and can tell exceedingly interesting stories, about the vic-
tories and defeats which happened (119) many years ago.
6. Such things are wicked I think, and I am very glad that
(83) such battles do not happen now. 7. Grandfather has
a long white beard and much white hair. 8. It is very
interesting to hear his stories, and also to look directly at
him while he is telling them. 9. He tells such stories with
great pleasure. 10. Although he has lived with (125) us

98 LESSON XXIX. [§§134-135

since February (131), he does not know (117) a great many
of the neighbors, or of the other persons living (133) near.
11. Grandmother has blue eyes, red cheelis, and soft white
curls. 12. She speaks slowly, with a sweet voice, and is
very patient. 13. Today she said to me " Good morning,
my dear (132), I have lost my spectacles. Will you look-
for them for me?" I nodded (the head) and soon found
the spectacles.

LESSON XXIX.

THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF MANNER AND
DEGREE.

134. The interrogative adverb of manner or degree,
related to the interrogative pronoun kiu, is kiel, how, in
what way, to what degree:

Kiel oni vivas en tia aero? How do people live in such air?
Kiel afabla §i estas ! How amiable she is !

Mi miras kiel la batalo okazis, / wonder how the battle happened.
Kiel longe li pensis pri gi ? How long did he think about it?

■ THE PLUPERFECT TENSE.

135. The compound tense formed by combining the
past active participle with the past tense of esti represents
an act or condition as having been completed at some time
in the past, and is called the ■plwperfect tense. The conju-
gation of vidi in this tense is as follows:

mi estis vidinta, I had seen (I was having-seen).

vi estis vidinta, you had seen (you were having-seen).

li (§i, gi) estis vidinta, he (she, it) had seen (was having-seen).

ni estis vidintaj, we had seen (we were having-seen).

vi estis vidintaj, you had seen (you were having-seen).

ili estis vidintaj, they had seen (they were having-seen).

§§136-139] LESSON XXIX. 99

CARDINAL NUMERALS.

136. Cardinals are numeral adjectives which answer the
question " How many?" The cardinals from one to
twelve are as follows:

unu, one. sep, seven.

du, two. ok, eight.

tri, three. nau, nine.

kvar, jour. dek, ten.

kvin, jive. dek unu, eleven.

ses, six. dek du, twelve.

137. With the exception of unu, none of the cardinals
may receive the plural ending -j or the accusative ending
-n. That is, they are invariable in form. Unuj may be
used to mean some in contrast to aliaj, others :

Unuj marSis, aliaj kuris, some walked, others ran.

Mi prenis unujn kaj lasis la aliajn, / took some and lejt the others.

138. The preposition el is used after numeral adjectives
expressing a number out of some larger number or quan-
tity:

Ses el la knaboj venis, six oj the boys came.

Ok el tiuj libroj estas la miaj, eight oj those books are mine.

El tiuj 6apeloj mi latas nur unu, oj those hats I like only one.*

THE ACCUSATIVE OF MEASURE.

139. A substantive in the accusative case may be used,
instead of a prepositional phrase or an adverb, not only to

* The cardinal unu must not be used in the sense of the English pronominal
" one," as in / am searching for a book, but not the one on the table, which should be
translated Mi sercas libron, sed ne tiun sur la tatlo.

100 LESSON XXIX. [§139

express measure (duration) of time (91), but also to ex-
press measure of weight, price, length, etc.:

Li marlis dek unu mejlojn, he walked eleven miles.

La parko estas lar|;a tri mejlojn, kaj longa kvar mejlojn, the park is

three miles wide and four miles long.
La tablo pezas dek du funtojn, the table weighs (is heavy) twelve

pounds.

NIA FAMILIO.

Mi rakontos al vi kian familion ni havas. Ni estas ses
personoj kaj ni logas en 6i tiu domo de antau preskau kvar
jaroj. Antaii ol veni 6i tien al la urbo, ni estis logintaj tri
jarojn en kvieta vilago en la kamparo. Mia patro estas
salta, kun grizaj haroj kaj griza barbo. Kvankam li ne
estas riSulo, li tamen havas sufice da mono por vivi kon-
tente kaj feli6e. Li satas marsi, kaj ofte li estas marsinta
kvin aii ses mejlojn por unu promeno. Unu fojon mi de-
mandis " Kiel vi povas mar§i tiel multe?" Li respondis

10" Dum mi estis junulo mi estis soldato, kaj tiam mi estis
tre multe marlanta. Tial mi ne forgesas la plezurojn de
longaj promenoj." La patrino estas malpli alta ol mi,
kaj kiel bluajn okulojn si havas, sub nigraj okulharoj kaj
nigraj brovoj! Siaj haroj estas nigraj kaj buklaj, kaj siaj

isvangoj estas rugaj. Si havas dolcan vocon, kaj estas
plezuro atidi siajn kantojn. Por legi ail skribi si kutime
portas okulvitrojn. Mi havas du fratojn kaj unu fratinon.
La fratino havas dek unu jarojn.* Unu el la fratoj havas
ok jarojn, la alia havas dek du jarojn. Hi povas bonege

aokuri, rajdi, kaj fari aliajn interesajn aferojn. Hi Jernis
siajn lecionojn en la lernejo tiel bone ke ses fojojn en unu

* Like French and some other languages, Esperanto commonly uses the verb
to have rather than the verb to be, in expressing age:
I/i havas set jaro'n, he i"s seven years old (he has seven years).
Mi havis dek jarojn tiam, I was ten years old (/ had ten years) then.

§139] LESSON XXIX. 101

monato oni laudis ilin. Ni multe gojis pri tiom da latido
por la f ratoj . La fratino estas malpli f orta, tamen si ofte
promenas kun ni e6 du aii tri mejlojn. La avino ankaii
logas 6e ni de antau sep ati ok jaroj. Unu el ni kutimess
restas 6e la hejmo kun si, dum la aliaj promenas, 6ar si ne
estas sufice forta por marsi ec unu mejlon. Mi ofte miras
kial si preferas sidi sur la verando, kaj mi demandas al ai
" Cu vi estas tro laca por marsi?" Si kutime balancas la
kapon kaj diras " Jes, mia nepo, mi estas tro laca." 30

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Three and four make seven. 2. Two and six make
eight. Five and six make eleven. 3. Seven and five make
twelve. 4. I have been studying geometry since five
months ago, and German since January. 5. I have read
three German books, but I shall not be able to talk in this
language until after August. 6. To learn how to speak
such a language is a difficult matter. 7. Nine of the children
in our school are now studying German with me, 8. Some
learn it easily, others do not like it. 9. Three of the boys
and two of the girls in that school are German. 10. They
had resided tour years in a large city, but I think (that)
they live more contentedly in our quiet village. 11. They
can not talk with us very well, but merely nod their heads
when we talk to them. 12. I had not seen them before
they came to school, although they are neighbors of ours.
13. They are amiable children, with blue eyes, red cheeks,
and yellow hair. 14. They can ride very well, and often
ride eight or ten miles in one day. 15. They usually ride
in a park three miles wide and four miles long, where there
is but little (nur malmulte da) dust.

102 LESSON XXX. [§§140-142

LESSON XXX.

THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF QUANTITY.

140. The interrogative adverb of quantity related to the
interrogative pronoun kiu is kiom, how much, how many:

Kiom da tempo vi ripozis? How much time did you rest?

Kiom da sukero kaj kiom da fragoj vi acetis ? How much sugar and

how many strawberries did you buyf
Ni miras kiom da mono li havos, we wonder how much money he will

have.
Kiom de la leciono vi lernis? How much of the lesson did you learn?

MODIFIERS OF IMPERSONALLY USED VERBS.

141. Any modifier of an impersonal verb (50) or of a
verb used impersonally, that is, with an infinitive or clause
for its subject, or without any definitely expressed or per-
sonal subject (as in " it is cold," " it seems too early "),
must necessarily be adverbial:

Estas varme en la domo, it is warm in the house.

Estos malvarme morgaii, it will he cold tomorrow.

Estas bone ke li venis, it is well that he came.

Estas amuze ke ni forgesis lin, it is amusing that we forgot him.

Ke vi venis estis tre sage, that you came was very wise'.

Estos pli agrable en la salono, it will be pleasanter in the parlor.

FORMATION OF CARDINAL NUMERALS.

142. The cardinal numerals for the tens, hundreds and
thousands are formed by prefixing du, tri, kvar, etc., to
dek, ten, cent, hundred, and mil, thousand, respectively.

Tens.
dudek, twenty. sesdek, sixty.

tridek, thirty. sepdek, seventy.

kvardek, forty. okdek, eighty.

kvindek, fifty. naudek, ninety.

§§143-145] LESsOiN- XXX 103

Hundreds. Thousands,

ducent, two hundred. trimil, three thousand.

kvincent, five hundred. kvarmil, jour thousand.

sepcent, seven hundred, etc. sesmil, six thousand, etc.

143. The cardinals between ten and twenty, twenty and
thirty, etc., are formed by placing unu, du, tri, etc., after
dek, dudek, tridek, etc. (C/. dek unu, eleven, dek du,
twelve, 136):

dek kvar, fourteen. tridek kvin, thirty-five.

dek nau, nineteen. sepdek ok, seventy-eight.

dudek tri, twenty-three, naudek ses, ninety-six, etc.

144. Cardinals containing more than two figures begin
with the largest number and descend regularly, as in
English:

cent tridek kvin, one hundred and thirty-five.
kvarcent naiidek sep, jour hundred and ninety-seven.
sescent du, sdx hundred and two.
mil okdek, one thousand and eighty.

mil naucent dek du, one thousand nine hundred and twelve (riineteen
hundred and twelve).

THE SUFFIX -AN-.

145. The suffix -an- is used to form words indicating an
inhabitant or resident of the place denoted by the root, or
a member or adherent of the'party, organization, etc., de-
noted by the root : * The suffix -an- may itself be used as
a" root, forming ano, member, etc.

bostonano, Bostonian. domano, inmate of a house.

kamparano, countryman, peasant, vilagano, villager.

*Cf. English urb-an, siiburh-an, Rom-an, repubUc~an, Mohammed-an, etc.

104 LESSON XX5. [§145

VOCABXTLAKY.

aritmetik-0, arithmetic. memor-i, to remember.

cent, hundred (142). mil, thousand (142).

erar-o, error, mistake. minut-o, minute.

grad-o, grade, degree. ricev-i, to receive.

kalkul-i, to calculate, to reckon. sekund-o, second.

kiom, how much (140). superjar-o, leap-year.

LECIONO PRI ARITMETIKO.

Estas malvarme hodiau, kaj tute ne agrable ekster la
domo. La urbanoj ne eKstas promenantaj en la parko, car
ill preferas resti en la domoj. Mi ankau restis en la domo,
kaj parolis al mia juna frato. Mi helpis lin pri la leciono

sen aritmetiko, tial ke li baldaii havos ekzamenojn, kaj li
volas esti preta por skribi tre bonajn respondojn. Mi de-
mandis al li " Kioni faras dek tri kaj dek kvar?" Li
respondis ke tiuj faras dudek sep. Tiam mi demandis
kiom faras dudek unu kaj tridek kvar. li Icalkulis kvin

loaii ses sekundojn, per mallauta vo6o, kaj diris "Hi faras
kvindek kvin." Mi demandis kiom faras ducent tri kaj
sepcent ok, kaj li respondis ke ill faras naiicent dek unu.
Li tute ne faris erarojn al mi, kaj fine mi diris al li ke li
povas bonege kalkuli. Mi opinias ke li ricevos bonan

15 gradon en la ekzamenoj. Post kelkaj minutoj ni komencis
paroli pri aliaj aferoj. Mi demandis " Kiom da tagoj en
la monato septembro?" La frato respondis " Septembro,
novembro, aprilo ka,j junio havas tridek tagojn. Kvankam
tiuj monatoj havas tiom da tagoj, la aliaj monatoj havas

20 tridek unu tagojn. Sed la monato februaro havas nur
dudek ok tagojn." Estas interese lerni pri ci tiu monato
februaro. Dum tri jaroj gi havas dudek ok tagojn, sed
en la sekvanta jaro gi havas dudek nau tagojn. La
jaro havanta tian februaron estas la " superjaro." Mi

§146] LESSON XXXI. 105

rakontis tiun interesan aferon al la frato, kaj li diris kess
li bone memoros gin. Li diris ke li ne antaiie sciis pri la
superjaro. Li ne sciis ke la superjaro havas tricent sesdek
ses tagojn, kvankam la aliaj jaroj havas nur tricent sesdek
kvin tagojn. Li diris ke li ankati memoros pri la nombro
da tagoj en la superjaro, kaj ke li rakontos la aferon al la so
aliaj knaboj.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. (To be written out in full): 14, 18, 42, 86, 79, 236,
431, 687, 788, 1240, 1885, 9872, 4500, 1912. 2. There are
twelve months in a j^ear, and in most of the months of the
year there are thirty-one days. 3. There are only thirty
days in the months April, June, September and Novem-
ber. 4. There are seven days in a week, and twenty-four
hours in a day. 5. Twelve of these hours make the day,
and the others make the night. 6. There are sixty minutes
in one hour, and sixty seconds in one minute. 7. There
are four weeks and also two or three days in one month.
8. In the year there are fifty-two weeks. 9. How many
weeks are there in ten years? 10. At least one year in ten
years is a leap-year. 11. In a leap-year there are three
hundred and sixty-six days, instead of three hundred and
sixty-five. 12. Wise men calculated about this matter,
many years ago. 13. It is well for us that they liked to
study arithmetic. 15. I have often received good grades
in this study. 16. I remember it easily, and seldom make
mistakes.

LESSON XXXI.

THE RELATIVE PRONOUN.

146. A connecting pronoun referring to something which
precedes (or follows) is called a relative pronoun. The

106 LESSON XXXI. [§§147-148

person or thing to which it refers is called its antecedent.
The relative pronoun, identical in form with the interrog-
ative pronoun (io6), as in English, is kiu, which, who* The
relative pronoun agrees in number with its antecedent.
Whether it is in the accusative case or not depends upon
its relation to its own verb or to other words in its own
clause (called the relative clause) :

La junuloj, kiuj venis, estas afablaj, the youths who came are amiable.
La personoj, kiujn U vidos, estas amikoj miaj, the persons (whom) he

will see are friends of mine.
Mi kalkulis la gradon, kiun li ricevos, / calculated the grade {which)

he will receive.
Mi memoras tiun aferon, pri kiu vi parolas, / remember that matter

about which you speak.

147. Like English " whose " the genitive form kies of
the interrogative pronoun (107) is also used as a relative,
referring to a substantive (singular or plural) for its
antecedent:

Li estas la Tiro, kies libron vi trovis, he is the man whose book you

found.
Mi konas la infanojn, kies patro estas amiko via, / know the children

whose father is a friend of yours.

THE FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.

148. The compound tense formed by combining the
past participle with the future tense of the auxiliary verb
esti represents an act or condition as having been already
completed or perfected at a future time, and is called the
future perfect tense. The conjugation of vidi in this tense
is as follows:

♦Sometimes English uses " that" for a relative pronoun, as " I saw the book
that you have." This must always be translated by kiu. Likewise, English
sometimes omits the relative pronoun, as " I saw the book you have." The
relative pronoun is never thus omitted in Esperanto.

§149] LESSON XXXL 107

mi estos vidinta, I shall have seen (/ shall he having-seen).

vi estos vidinta, you will have seen (you will be having-seen).

li (M, §i) estos vidinta, he {she, it) will have seen {will be having-seen),

ni estos vidintaj, we shall have seen {shall be having-seen).

vi estos vidintaj, you will have seen {will be having-seen).

ili estos vidintaj, they will have seen {will be having-seen).

■ ORDINAL NUMERALS.
149. Ordinal numerals are adjectives which answer the
question " Which in order?" as " first," " third," etc.
They are formed by adding the adjectival suffix -a to the
cardinals. The various parts of an ordinal must be con-
nected by hyphens, since it is to the entire cardinal, and
not any part of it, that the adjective ending -a is attached:

unua, first. dudek-sepa, twenty-seventh.

dua, second. kvardek-sesa, forty-sixth.

tria, third. cent-okdek-kvina, hundred and eighty-fifth.

oka, eighth. mil-okcent-kvara, one thousand and eighty-

dek-unua, eleventh. fourth.

dek-naua, nineteenth. sesmil-sepa, six thousand and seventh.*

VOCABITLAEY.

angl-a, English. neces-a, necessary.

dezir-i, to desire. paf-i> to shoot.

dolar-o, dollar. pafark-o, how (for shooting),

gajn-i, to win, to gain. part-o, part, share.

kost-i, to cost. pen-i, to strive, to try.

last-a, last. traduk-i, to translate.

latin-a, Latin. sag-o, arrow.

mar-o, sea. sam-a, same.

ALFREDO GRANDA KAJ LA LIBRO.

Antati pli multe ol mil jaroj vivis Alfredo Granda, unu

* Ordinal numerals may be abbreviated'thxis: la, 1st, 2a, Snd, 3a, 3rd, sa,
5tk, 1912a, 1912th, 233a, 233rd, etc. If the ordinal number is used in an ac-
cusative construction, the abbreviation is given the accusative ending, as lan,
2an, 3an, I9i2an, etc.

108 LESSON XXXL [§149

el la plej interesaj personoj pri kiuj ni estas aiidintaj . Li
estis la unua angla rego, kiu deziris legi librojn. Li estis
ankaii la lasta, kiu povis legi ilin, gis post multaj jaroj.
5 Unu tagon, dum li estis malgranda knabo kun flavaj buklaj
haroj, lia patrino, tre saga regino, montris al li kaj al liaj
fratoj belegan libron. Si diris ke la libro kostis multe da
mono en lando trans la maro, kaj ke gi nun apartenas al si.
Si diris " Miaj filoj, mi donos ci tiun libron al tiu el vi, kiu

lolernos legi gin. Kiu el vi estos la unua, kiu povos legi?
Tiu ricevos la libron." Nu, Alfredo komencis studi, kaj
post ne longe li gajnis la belegan libron. Liaj fratoj
ec ne penis gajni gin. Tiam oni tre malmulte pensis
pri libroj. La regoj kaj iliaj filoj nur malofte povis

15 legi, kaj treege malofte povis skribi. Oni laiidis nur per-
sonojn, kiuj bone rajdis kaj batalis per sagoj kaj pafarkoj.
Sed oni opiniis ke tute ne estis necese scii pri la aferoj,
kiujn la libroj rakontas. Tial Alfredo ne ricevis laiidon
pro sia deziro por legi. La sesan ail sepan jaron post sia

2oricevo de la libro, Alfredo volis lerni la latinan lingvon,
6ar tiam oni skribis latine (in Latin) la librojn, kiuj estis
plej bonaj. Oni sercis gis la finoj de la lando, kaj iris
multajn mejlojn, sed preskaii ne povis trovi personon, kiu
et estis audinta pri tia lingvo. Fine oni trovis personon

25 por helpi Alfredon, kiu tiam lernis la latinan lingvon.
Tiu sama Alfredo estis rego multajn jarojn, kaj estis unu
el la plej bonaj regoj, kiujn la angla lando estas havinta.
Alfredo skribis librojn en la latina lingvo, kaj ankaii tra-
dukis latinajn librojn en la anglan lingvon.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. (To be written out in full): 37th, 59th, 73rd, 92nd,
846th, 119th, 1274th, 1910th, 14235th. 2. Before my
friend wiU have finished that mansion (122), it will have

§150] LESSON XXXII. 109

cost twenty thousand dollars. 3. Before coming to visit
you, I shall have ridden twelve miles on my horse. 4.
The grade which you will have received in arithmetic soon
after the first of March will be excellent. 5. You do not
make mistakes very often in the lessons. 6. I shall try
after a few minutes to translate that Latin book, for
(car) it seems interesting. 7. It is necessary to study Latin,
for I desire to read the stories which are in my Latin book.
8. The one thousand nine hundred and fourth year was a
leap-year. 9. The fourth year after that year was also a
leap-year. 10. The 1912th year will be a leap-year.
There are three hundred and sixty-six days in such a year.

12. Alfred won the book which his mother had bought.

13. Such a book now costs four or five hundred dollars.

14. Alfred the Great was the last king until many years
afterward (until after many years) who could read or
write. 15. He was the first king in that land who even
wished to be able to read books. 16. We often talk about
this same King Alfred, and say that he was the father of
the English language. 17. People say so {diras tiel) be-
cause he translated Latin books into the language of his
land, and because he also wrote books in that language.

LESSON XXXII,

KIA AS A RELATIVE ADJECTIVE.

150. The interrogative adjective kia (112) is also used
as a relative adjective, referring back to tia, or to some
equivalent phrase or word indicating quality, such as
sama, etc. In this use it may often be translated " as,"
or " which":

Mi havas tian libron, kian mi volas, / have such a {that kind of) book
as {which kind) I wish.

110 LESSON XXXII. [§§151-152

Tiaj amikoj, kiajn vi havas, estas afablaj, such friends as {of which

kind) you have are amiable.
Li deziras tian capelon, kia kostas ses dolarojn, he desires that kind

of hat which (kind) costs six dollars.
Mi havas la saman deziron, kian vi, / have the same desire as you

(same kind which you have).

KIE AS A RELATIVE ADVERB.

151. The interrogative adverb kie, kien (118) is also
used as a relative adverb of place with tie, tien, or some
other expression of place for its antecedent.* Kien is used
when the verb in the relative clause expresses motion
toward the place indicated, whether or not its antecedent
has this ending. Similarly, kie may refer to tie or to tien :

Mi iros tien, kie vi estas, / shall go there where you are.

Mi estis tie, kien vi iros, / was there (at that place) where you will go.

Mi iros tien, kien vi iris, / shall go to that place to which you went (I

shall go where you went).
Mi trovis lin en la urbo, kie li Iog;as, I found him in the city where he

lives.
Cu vi venos 6i tien, kie ni estas? Are you coming here where we
aref

THE FUTURE ACTIVE PARTICIPLE.

152. The future active participle (for the characteristics
of a participle see 108), expressing what the word modified
will do or is about to do, ends in -onta, as vidonta, about
to see, ironta, about to go:

La forironta viro vokis sian serviston, the man going to depart (the

ahout-to-depart man) called his servant.
La virino salutonta vin estas tre afabla, the woman about to greet you

is very affable.

*Any interrogative adverb may also be used to introduce an indirect ques-
tion, thus serving as a subordinating conjunction (cf. eft, p. 38, ftn.).

§§153-154] LESSON XXXII. Ill

La venonta monato estas marto, the coming month is March.
La venontan semajnon mi foriros, the coming (next) week I shall
depart.

THE PERIPHRASTIC FUTURE TENSES.

153. The compound tenses formed by combining the
future active participle with each of the three aoristic
tenses of esti represent an act or state as about to occur
in the present, past, or future, respectively, and are called
periphrastic future tenses. Except when great accuracy is
desired, these tenses are not often used. A synopsis of
vidi in the first person singular and plural of these tenses
is as follows:

Present Periphrastic Future.

mi estas vidonta, ni estas vidontaj,

/ am about to {going to) see. we are about to {going to) see.

Past Periphrastic Future.
mi estis vidonta, ni estis vidontaj,

/ was about to {going to) see. we were about to {going to) see.

Future Periphrastic Future.
mi estos vidonta, ni estos vidontaj,

/ shall be about to {going to) see. we shall be about to {going to) see.

THE SUFFIX -IND-.

154. The suffix -ind- is used to form words expressing
worthy of, deserving of, that which is indicated in the root.
It may also be used as a root, to form inda, worthy, ma-
linda, unworthy, indo, worth, merit, etc.:

dezirinda, desirable. rimarkinda, noteworthy, remarkable.

laudinda, praiseworthy. ridinde, ridiculously, laughably.

mallaudinda, blameworthy. tradukinda, worth translating.

112 LESSON XXXII. [§154

VOCABULAKY.

ankoraii, still, yet.* flar-i, to smell.

atak-i, to attack. gast-o, guest.

bat-i, to beat. ho ! Oh!

cert-a, sure, certain. kri-i, to exclaim, to cry.

defend-i, to defend. kruel-a, cruel.

difekt-i,. to spoil. kuk-o, cake.

edz-o, husband. lign-o, wood.

fajr-o, fire. suspekt-i, to suspect.

ALFREBO GRANDA KAJ LA KUKOJ.

Unu fojdn antau pli multe ol mil jaroj, soldatoj venis de
trans la maro por ataki la anglan re^on Alfredon Grandan.
Hi nek konis nek malamis lin, sed ili sciis ke 11 estas persono
kies land on ili deziras gajni. Ci tiuj malamikoj estis venintaj

5 tiel subite ke Alfredo ne estis preta por defendi sian landon
kontraii ili. Tial li forkuris kelkajn mejlojn de la urbo,
kaj sin ka&is en granda arbaro malantau vilago. An-
statati porti regajn vestojn li a6etis tiajn cifonojn kiajn
kamparanoj kaj malriculoj portas. Li logis 6e malrica

losedlaiidinda kamparano, kiu ne konis la regon, kaj tute ne
suspektis kia persono lia ga.sto estas. Unu memorindan
tagon Alfredo estis sidanta apud la fajro, kaj estis rigar-
danta siajn sagojn kaj pafarkon dum li pensis malgoje pri
sia lando. La edzino de la arbarano demandis "Cu vi

isankoraii sides tie dekkvin au dudek minutojn?" " Jes,"
respondis la rego. Si diris " Nu, estos necese fari pli var-

*The adverb ankorau expresses the ideas "until and during the present time,"
" in the future as now and before," " in constant or uniform succession," *' in
an increasing or additional degree," given sometimes by English yet, sometimes
by still:

Mi estas ankoraii sidanta ci tie, 7 am still sittiTig here.
Li ankoraii ne venis, still he has not come (he has not come yet).
Li ankorau restos tie, he will still stay there.
Ankoraii ili venas, still they come.
Li estos ankorafi pli ruza, he will he still {yet) more crafty.

§154] LESSON XXXII. 113

megan fajron por tiaj kukoj kiajn mi nun estas bakonta.
Cu vi gardos tiujn kukoj n kiuj nun estas super la fajro,
dum mi kolektos pli multe da liguo?" Alfredo respondis
"Certe mi gardos ilin kontrati la fajro." La virino ser-20
fionta lignon foriris en alian parton de la arbaro, kie
estis multe da ligno, kaj la rego penis zorgi pri la kukoj.
Sed baldail li forgesis ilin, kaj la fajro ilin difektis. Kiam
la virino venis kaj flaris la kukojn si kriis " ho, vi ripro-
6inda viro ! Kvankam vi ankoraii sidas tie, vi ne pensas pri 25
la kukoj, kaj la fajro estas difektinta ilin!" Si estis kruele
batonta la regon, kiam li diris al §i kiu li estas, kaj kial li
forgesis la kukojn. Tiam si tre hontis, kaj anstatau
mallatidi lin si volis esti ankorau pli bona al li.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Alfred the Great was a praiseworthy king who lived
more than a thousand years ago. 2. People still talk about
him becaxise he not only translated many Latin books into
the English language, but also wrote in English. 3. He
wished to help the peasants still more. 4. But enemies
often attacked him, and finally they conquered his sol-
diers. 5. Then they hastened to where (151) Alfred was.
6. They were about to attack him, when he rode away se-
cretly {ka§e) into a large forest. 7. There he dwelt some
time in the house of a poor forester. 8. He wore such rags
as a peasant usually wears, and did not tell the forester
who he was. 9. One day he was sitting near the fire and
wondering, " Will the enemy have conquered my soldiers
next week?" 10. The forester's wife said, " Will you sit
there yet a while and take-care of those cakes? I am
about to gather more wood." 11. He replied, "Certainly,
I will try to help you." 12. But when after a few minutes
the woman smelled the cakes, she knew that the fire had

114 LESSON XXXIII. [§§155-156

spoiled them. 13. She exclaimed "Oh, what a blame-
worthy man!" 14. She commenced to beat the king
cruelly, but he did not defend himself. 15. Instead (120),
he told her who he was.

LESSON XXXIII.
KIAM AS A RELATIVE ADVERB.

155- The interrogative temporal adverb kiam (123) is
also used as a relative temporal adverb, with tiam or an
equivalent word or phrase for its antecedent. (It may
not be omitted as in English "at the time he came ") :

Mi suspektis lin je la tempo kiam li venis, / suspected him at the time

when he came (the time that he came).
Li defendis sin tiam, kiam oni atakis lin, he defended himself then,

when he was attacked.
Mi ankorau sidos tie gis kiam vi venos, / shall still sit there until when

you come (until you come).
Post kiam li tiel lafite kriis, li komencis plori, after he shouted so loudly,

he began to cry,

KIEL AS A RELATIVE ADVERB.

156. The interrogative adverb kiel (134) is also used as
a relative adverb of manner and degree, with tiel, or same,
or an equivalent adverb or phrase for its antecedent. It
may often be translated "as:"

Mi defendis min tiel, kiel li defendis sin, / defended myself in that way
in which (way) he defended himself.

Vi ne estas tiel kruela kiel li, you are not so cruel as he (is).

lli batis lin same kiel vi, they beat him in the same way as you (did).

Ili batis lin same kiel vin, they heat him the same as (they did) you.

Kiel mi diris al li, mi estas feli£a, as I told him, I am happy (ante-
cedent not expressed).

Li parolis tiel mallaute kiel antaue, he spoke as softly as before.

§i estas tiel bona kiel 6i estas bela, she is as good as she is fair.

§§157-159] LESSON XXXIII. 115

NUMERAL NOUNS AND ADVERBS.

157. Nouns may be formed from the cardinals by addi-
tion of the ending -o. After such nouns the preposition
da orde is used: *

dekduo, a dozen. milo, a thousand.

dudeko, a score. unuo, a unit.

deko, a ten, half a score. kvaro, a jour, a quartette.

cento, a hundred. trio, a three, a trio.

158. Adverbs may be formed from the cardinals by
addition of the ending -e :

unue, firstly, at first. deke, tenthly. •

due, secondly, in the second place, sesdeke, sixtiethly.

kvine, fifthly, in the fifth place. okdek-kvare, eighty- fourthly.

WORD DERIVATION FROM PREPOSITIONS.

159. Adjectives, verbs and nouns, as well as adverbs
(120), may be derived from prepositions by addition of the
formative endings (116), with sometimes a soecial suffix
also:

anstataui, to replace, to take the place of,
anstatauulo, a substitute.
antaua, previous, preceding.
apuda, near, contiguous, adjacent.
fiirkaiil, to surround, to encircle.
filrkauo, a circuit, a circumference.
kontraua, adverse, opposite, contrary.

*The prepositions da and de follow nouns (99, 100) or adverbs (loi), while
el follows adjectives in the superlative degree (75), cardinal numerals (138), and
the pronouns tiu, kiu (106), etc.;
dekduo da ovoj, a dozen {of) eggs.
dekduo de la ovoj, a dozen of the eggs.
dek du el tiuj ovoj, twelve of those eggs.
kiu el la ovoj? which one of the eggs?
tiu el la ovoj, that one of the eggs,
la plej fresa el la ovoj, the freshest of the eggs.

116 LESSON XXXIIL [§159

kontrauulo, adversary, opponent.
kunulo, comrade, companion.
superi, to surpass, to exceed, to he above.
superege, surpassingly, exceedingly.

VOCABULABY.

adiaii, farewell, goodbye. kuz-o, cousin.

akcept-i, to accept, to receive. malgra^, notwithstanding.

elekt-i, to choose, to select. par-o, pair.

fest-i, to celebrate, to entertain. pend-i, to hang.

gant-o, glove. prez-o, price.

g:entil-a, courteous. renkont-i, to meet.

invit-i, to invite. su-o, shoe.

Jus, just, at the moment.* uz-i, to use.

LA INVITO.

Hieraii matene mia kuzo vizitis 6e ni, kaj invitis tnin
al malgranda festo kiu okazos morgati vespere. Tiam li
festos la lastan tagon de la jaro. Li diris ke la gastoj sidos
6irkau la fajrejo kaj rakontos rakontojn gis malfrua horo.

5 Mi akceptis lian gentilan inviton, kaj diris ke mi certe venos.
Mia kuzo lo^as en la sama urbo kie nia familio logas, sed
en alia parto. lia hejmo estas preskau du mejlojn de la
nia. Tamen, ni estas bonaj kunuloj, kaj ofte promenas
kune. Jus kiam li estis elironta el la pordo hierau, mi uzis

10 la okazon (opportunity) por proponi mallongan promenon.
Li respondis ke li goje promenos kun mi, malgraii la nega
vetero. Tial ni formarsis tien, kie la stratoj estis malplej
kotaj. Ija kuzo havas dek ok jarojn, sed mi estas preskaii

* The adverb 3us indicates the elapsing of the least possible time since the
act or condition indicated, or between the two acts or conditions indicated.
Ni jus venis, we just came {we came hut a moTnent ago).
Mi havas la saman opinion kian vi jus diris, / have the same opinion as you just

gave (said).
Hi vidis lin jus kiam li estis forironta, 7 saw him just when he was about to depart.
fus kiam vi venis li foriris, just as you came he went away.

§159] LESSON xxxni. 117

tiel alta kiel li. Mi estas certa ke mi estas ankati tiel forta
kiel li. Ni parolis pri multaj interesaj aferoj, kaj bonegeis
nin amuzis, gis kiam estis necese hejmen iri. La kuzo
diris " adiaxi," kaj iris rekte hejmen, sed mi iris al granda
butiko. Unue, mi volis aceti paron da novaj gantoj, por
anstataui la malnovajn gantoj n kiujn mi ankorau estis
portanta, kvankam mi acetis ilin antati tri monatoj. Due, 20
mi bezonis paron da novaj suoj. Mi iris en la butikon kie
pendis tiaj gantoj, kiajn mi satas, kaj oni tuj venis por
renkonti min, kaj demandis "Kiajn vestojn vi volas
aceti?" Oni montris al mi preskaii dudekon da paroj da
gantoj. Mi elektis tre bonan paron, kaj estis jus a6e-85
tonta ilin, malgrati la tro granda prezo, kiam mi vidis
alian pli belan paron. Tial nii acetis 6i tiun, kaj poste mi
rigardis la suojn. Mi tro vis rimarkinde bonan paron, 6ar
estas centoj da suoj en tiu butiko. Mi tuj a6etis tiun
paron, kaj tiam hejmen iris. 30

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. My friend likes to live in the city, but his wife prefers
to live in their little wooden house in the country. 2.
There she can see and smell the flowers, and can take
(fari) long walks in the adjacent fields and forest. 3.
There are often hundreds of persons in a village, but there
are thousands of persons in a city. 4. The larger a city is,
the larger and better its stores are. 5. In the second place,
one can buy better bread, vegetables and cake in the city.
6. Thirdly, one can also find better gloves, hats and shoes
there, and the price is often less. 7. Therefore I make use
of the opportunity when I go to the city, and usually buy
a pair of new gloves. 8. 1 am still wearing a pair of gloves
which the rain spoiled. 9. Notwithstanding their ugly
color, they are still thick and good. 10. But soon I shall

118 LESSON XXXIV. [§160

buy such a pair as (150) is hanging in the window of that
store. 11. The price is low, and I need a new pair now,
for my cousin has invited me to a small party (festo) at
his house. 12. I accepted his invitation courteously, and
said that I would gladly be his guest. 13. We are good
comrades, although he is younger than I am. 14. My
(girl) cousin, his sister, is older than he is, but he is as tall
as she. 15. 1 was just about to send a letter to him at the
minute that (155) he knocked on our door. 16. His visit
will take the place of (159) my letter. 17. Just as (just
when) he was going away, I said goodbye to him, and said
that I would meet him in the park tomorrow. 18. 1 think
that we shall have a pleasant walk, althoiigh the weather
is still remarkably cold, the same as (156) it was two or
three months ago.

LESSON XXXIV.

PREPOSITIONS AS PREFIXES.

160. Any preposition ma}^ be used as a prefix to a verb,
provided the resulting compound is intelligible. A few
prepositional compounds are given below, only verbs being
shown, although nouns, adjectives and adverbs may be
formed from these (116):

alveni, to arrive. dependi, to hang from, to depend.

aldoni, to add. demeti, to lay aside.

antaudiri, to predict. depreni, to subtract.

fiirkaupreni, to embrace. enhavi, to contain.

6eesti, to be present. eliri, to go out.*

* Like English " out " the preposition el often develops in composition a
secondary sense of " thoroughly "or" completely '* (.cf. " I am tired out ");
eltrovi, to find out, to discover.
elpensi. to think oiU, to invent.
ellabori. to work out, to elaborate.
ellerni, to learn thoroughly, to master.
eiuzi, io use completely^ to wear out (transitive).

§§161-163] LESSON XXXIV. 119

interparoli, to converse. subteni, to support.

kontraudiri, to contradict. sunneti, to put on.

kunlabori, to collaborate. traguti, to percolate.

kunveni, to assemble. travidi, to see through

priskribi, to describe. transiri, to cross.

THE SUFFIX -EBL-.

i6i. The suffix -ebl- is used to form adjectives, adverbs,
etc., expressing the likehhood or possibihty of that which is
indicated by the root,* It may be used as a root, to form
ebla, possible, etc.

eltrovebla, discoverable. rompebia, breakable.

legebla, legible. videbla, visible.

mangebla, edible. travidebla, transparent.

EXPRESSION OF THE HIGHEST DEGREE POSSIBLE,

162. The adverb plej, most (74), modified by kiel eble
(as possible), is used to express the highest degree possible:

6-i estas kiel eble plej bona, it is the best possible.
Ni estos kiel eble plej sagaj, we shall be as wise as possible.
Li uzis kiel eble plej malmulte, he used the least possible.
Mi skribis kiel eble plej legeble, / wrote as legibly as possible.

TITLES AND TERMS OF ADDRESS.

163. The words sinjoro, gentleman, sinjorino, lady, frafl-
lino, miss, are used hke English Mr., Mrs., Miss, before
proper names, and are also used as terms of address,
without being followed by the name : f

Adiaii, Sinjoro. Adiau, Sinjorino, Goodbye (Sir). Goodbye, Madam.

* The suffix -ebl- is often equivalent to the English suffixes -able, -ible, but
these suffixes have other meanings also, as in " readable," worth reading (leginda),
" lovable," deserving of love (aminda), etc.

t Cf. English Doctor, Professor, Madam, as terms of address, and also German
Mein Ilerr, gnadige Frau, gnlidi^es Frdulein, French Monsieur, Mademoiselle,
Spanish, Seftor, Se/Iora, Italian Signore, etc.

120 LESSON XXXIV. [§163

Fraulino B — , 6u vi konas tiun sinjoron kun Sinjorino C — ? Miss

B — , do you know that gentleman with Mrs. C — f
Mi ne konas tiun fraulinon, / do not know that young lady.
Kien vi volas iri, Fraulino ? Where do you wish to go (Miss) 1
Sinjoro A — estas tre afabla, Mr. A — is very amiable.

VOCABULABY.

atent-a, attentive. onkl-o, uncle.

auskult-i, to listen. san-a, in good health.

babil-i, to chatter. sent-i, to feel.

doktor-o, doctor. sinjor-o, gentleman.

fraul-o, bachelor. gtup-o, step (of stairs).

gaj-a, merry, gay. tas-o, cup.

grup-o, group. vojag-o, voyage, journey.

Ce la festo.

Hierau vespere mi iris al la hejmo de mia kuzo, kiu estis
invitinta min al malgranda festo ce li. Car mi deziris al-
veni kiel eble plej frue, mi foriris de mia logejo kiel eble
plej baldaii, malgrati la nega vetero. Mi estis surmetinta

5paron da dikaj gantoj, kaj mi portis dikajn suojn. Mi
ankaii havis mian ombrelon, kvankam pro la vento mi ne
povis uzi tiun. Tuj kiam mi supreniris la stuparon ce la
hejmo de la kuzo, li aiidis min, kaj venis por malfermi la
pordon kaj akcepti min. " Bonan vesperon, kia estas via

losano?" li diris. Mi respondis " Mi sanas bonege, dankon,"
kaj eniris la domon kun li. Ni supren iris per granda
stuparo al 6ambro kie mi lasis la capelon, gantojn kaj om-
brelon, tiam ni malsupren venis kaj eniris la salonon. Mi
salutis la onklinon, kiu afable parolis al mi, kaj ankaii la du

iskuzinojn. Unu kuzino estis jus priskribonta interesan
libron, kiun si antail ne longe tralegis, kiam la aliaj gastoj
komencis alveni. Sinjoro B — fieestis, kaj Doktoro C — ,
kun sia filino Fraiilino Mario, kaj multe da aliaj sinjoroj kaj

§163] LESSON XXXIV. 121

sinjorinoj. La gastoj sidis au staris en malgrandaj grupoj,
kaj interparolis kun videbla plezuro. Unu rakontis priso
vojago, kaj tiam oiii "komencis priparoli la prezojn de
aferoj en aliaj landoj. Mi atente auskultis kelkajn minu-
tojn, kaj tiam foriris al alia grupo, kie oni gaje babilis pri
estontaj (future) promenoj kaj festoj. Post unu au du
horoj, la servistinoj alportis al ni bonan malgrandan 25
mangon, kune kun tasoj da bonega kafo. Fine, je malfrua
horo ni gentile dankis la familion de mia kuzo, kaj diris
adiaii. Tiam ni foriris liejmen, kun sentoj da granda
plezuro pro la agrabla festo.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. There are dozens of edible fruits, but the fruits of
hundreds of trees are not at all (tiite ne estas) edible. 2.
The transparent cup and plate upon the table are very
breakable. 3. I predict that you will break them as soon
as you seize them. 4. That letter is worth reading. 5.
But it is difScult to read it, for it is not very legible. 6.
It is from my uncle, who wishes to arrive at-our-house as
early as possible. 7. He is still in the city, but soon he
will be -here, and will go up the steps (ituparon) of our
porch and knock on the door. 8. There are very few per-
sons who contradict his opinions. 9. His opinions, how-
ever, are worthy ofcattention (154) and usually I listen
courteously while he is talking. 10. Now, however, I
prefer to listen to the group of ladies in the adjacent room.
11. They are chattering gaily, and listening to the young
lady who is about to sing. 12. Madam, do you feel the
wind? I notice that it is blowing the curtains which hang
before that window. 13. I will close the window, because
I am not very well (sana) today. 14. Is that gentleman

122 LESSON XXXV. [§§164-166

across the room a bachelor? 15. Yes. He is describing a
voyage and the people whom he met.

LESSON XXXV.
KIOM AS A RELATIVE ADVERB.

164. The interrogative adverb kiom (140) is used as a
relative adverb of quantity, with tiom or some equivalent
word or phrase for its antecedent. In this use it is com-
monly translated " as":

La taso enhavis tiom da kafo, kiom mi povis trinki, the cup contained

as muck coffee as I could drink.
Mi havos tiom da tempo, kiom mi bezonos, I shall have as much time

as I shall need.
Li sendis tiom, kiom vi volis, he sent as much as you wished.

THE PRESENT PASSIVE PARTICIPLE.

165. The present passive participle (for the present
active participle see 108), expressing that which is undergone
by the person or thing indicated by the word modified,
ends in -ata, as vidata, being seen : *

La laudata knabo estas felifia, the boy being praised is happy.
Mi sercos la deziratan libron, / shall look for the desired book.
La vestoj farataj por vi estas belaj, the clothes being made for you are
beautiful.

FRACTIONS.

166. Fractions are formed from the cardinals by the use
of the suffix -on- followed by the ending -o. Adjectives
and adverbs may be derived from these by use of the
endings -a or -e :

* The verb iii, to go, used to illustrate the active participles (io8, 119, 152),
cannot be used to illustrate a passive participle, since passive participles can be
made from transitive verbs (22) only.

§167] LESSON XXXV. 123

La duono de ses estas tri, the half of six is three.

Li estis nur duone atenta, he was only half attentive.

La triona parto de ses estas du, the third part of six is two.

Dek unu dekduonoj, eleven twelfths.

Mi dudekone finis la laboron, I one-twentieth finished the work.

DESCRIPTIVE COMPOUNDS.

167. A compound word whose first element m.odifies
the second in an adjectival or adverbial relation is called a
descriptive compound. The final -a or -e of the first ele-
ment may be omitted, unless the resulting combination
would be ambiguous or harsh-sounding.

a. When the first element is adverbial (an adverb or
preposition), the second element may be either an adverb
or adjective:

multekosta, expensive. rugflava (rug;eflava), reddish yellow.

duonkolere, half angrily. survoje, on the way, en route.

nevidebia, invisible. antauhieraii, day before yesterday.

nevole, involuntarily. postmorgau, day after tomorrow.

b. An adjective may be used for the first element, if the
second is an adverb or adjective derived from a noun-root:

samtempa, contemporaneous. unutaga, one day's, of one day.
unufoje, once, one time. unuataga, the first day's.

trifoje, thrice, three times. frutempe, at an early time.

c. A noun may be used for the second element, if the
resulting word has not merely unity of form, but also unity
of meaning with a slightly different sense from that ex-
pressed by the noun and adjective uncombined: *

* In national languages a change of accent often accompanies such change in
meaning, as blackberry (not black berry), bluebird (not blue bird), sweetheart (not
sweet heart), German jiingfrau, virgin (not jung frau, young woman), etc.

124 LESSON XXXV. [§167

bonveno, a welcome (not bona veno, a good coming).

libertempo, a vacation, leisure (not libera tempo, free time).

super jaro, leap-year (not super jaro, above a year).

bondeziroj, good wishes, felicitations (not bonaj deziroj, good desires).

plimulto, a majority (adverb and noun combined).

VoCABULAET.

fiin-0, Chinaman. naci-o, nation.

jam, already.* pag-o, page.

kler-a, enlightened, learned. pres-i, to print.

komerc-o, trade, commerce. pulv-o, gunpowder.

lanc-o, spear, lance. sang-i, to change.

liber-a, free. te-o, tea.

metod-o, method, way. ted-a, tiresome, tedious.

LA filNOJ.

Antau miloj da jaroj la hinoj estis la plej klera nacio en
la mondo. Dum aliaj nacioj ankorati ne konis metodojn
por presi librojn, kaj ankorau faris ilin skribe, la samtem-
paj hinoj jam estis forlasintaj tiun multekostan kaj tedan

smetodon. Hi jam estis presantaj la pagojn de miloj da
libroj. Aliaj nacioj tiam estis batalantaj kiel eble plej
kruele, per sago kaj pafarko, kaj per lanco. Sed ili an-
korau ne havis pafilojn, car pulvo estis tutenekonataal ili.
Tamen lahinoj jam bone konis metodojn por fari kaj por uzi

lopulvon, kaj faris tiajn amuzajn flavrugajn fajrojn, kiajn
ni ankorau hodiaxi acetas de ili, por uzi je festaj tagoj.

* The adverb jam indicates a cliange from some preceding action or state to
the different one expressed in the sentence, clause or phrase containing jam.
It may often be translated " yet," " now," etc.

Mi jam vidis lio, I already saw (have already seen) him.

6u vi jam trovis gin? Ne, mi ankorau ne trovis |in. Have you yet (have you

already) found it f No, I have not yet (still not) found it.
Li jam ne vivas, he no longer lives (he already is-not-alive).
Jam ne negas, it is not snowing now (.already not snowing).

§167] LESSON XXXV. 125

Sed la Ginoj ne multe satis la komercon, kaj ne deziris
a6eti aii lerni de aliaj nacioj. Hi aiikorau nun havas la
samajn metodojn por presi librojn kaj por fari pulvon,
kiajn ili ha vis antati mil jaroj. Hi malofte sangas siajnis
kutimojn. Tial la aliaj nacioj, kiuj antaiie ne estis tiel
kleraj, antaueniras pli rapide ol la fiinoj. La lando de la
iiinoj enhavas tiom da personoj, kiom tri au kvar aliaj
nacioj . Granda parto de tiu lando estas ankoraii nekonata
al okcidentaj nacioj, kvankam plej multe da nia teo el- so
venas el la nina lando. Oni diras ke la parolata lingvo kaj
la skribata lingvo de la ninoj estas du tre malsamaj aferoj.
I;a lingvo estas almenau treege malfacila, kaj post kiam
oni estas longe studinta gin, oni tamen estas nur duone
lerninta gin. Mi gojas tial ke la lingvo j studataj en lass
lernejoj de nia lando ne estas tiel malfacilaj kiel la hina
lingvo. La latina kaj germana lingvoj estas sufifie mal-
facilaj, kvankam ili estas tre interesaj kaj ankaii konataj
de la kleruloj en multaj landoj. La latina lingvo jam ne
estas parolata lingvo. so

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Why are the persons in that merry group laughing
and chattering instead of listening to Mr. B — ? 2. I
think that the doctor is telling stories about a bachelor
who was once a good friend of his. 3. The gentleman being
talked about (i6o, 165) will visit us this evening, possibly.
4. My aunt and cousin will come down stairs and converse
with him. 5. We shall drink as man)' cups of tea or of
coffee as we wish. 6. He will say " How is your health,
Madam?" My aunt will reply half-angrily that she is
seldom ill. 7. We shall sit on the veranda, for the sun is
still shining, although it is al'/eady setting. 8. That young
lady who came with Mrs. C — relates the best possible

126 LESSON XXXVI. [§§168-169

stories. 9. She says that the Chinese were already an
enhghtened nation hundreds of years ago, while other
nations were still cruelly fighting. 10. A method for
printing the pages of books, instead of writing them, was
a discovery of the Chinese. They printed books in their
printing-shops, a thousand years ago. 12. They also
were-acquainted-with gunpowder, which they made and
used for such fires as we use on national days of-cele-
bration, when we have leisure and wish to enjoy (to
amuse) ourselves. 13. But the Chinese have not changed
these methods. 14. Their ways of commerce, work and
pleasure are the same as they were long ago. 15. Such a
nation does not progress rapidly, even though its life is
very long.

LESSON XXXVT.
THE PRESENT PASSIVE TENSE.

i68. The compound tense formed by combining the
present passive participle with the present tense of the
auxiliary verb esti expresses an act or condition as being
undergone by the subject of the verb, and is called the
present passive tense. The conjugation of vidi in this tense
is as follows:

mi estas vidata, I am (being) seen.

vi estas vidata, you are (being) seen.

li (si, |i) estas vidata, he (she, it) is (being) seen.

ni estas vidataj, we are (being) seen.

vi estas vidataj, you are (being) seen.

ili estas vidataj, they are (being) seen.

THE USE OF DE TO EXPRESS AGENCY.

169. The person by whom (or the thing by which) an
act, indicated by a passive verb or participle, is performed

§§170-171] LESSON XXXVI. 127

is called the agent of the passive voice, and is expressed by
a substantive preceded by de :

La lanco estas portata de mi, the spear is carried by me.

La libroj estas jam presataj de li, the books are already being printed

by him.
La vojoj estas kovrataj de nego, the roads are being covered by snow.
§i estas laudata de la sinjoro, she is being praised by the gentleman.

THE GENERAL MEANING OF DE.

170. The preposition de conveys the general idea of
separation from a source or starting point, in space (literal
or figurative), or in time (89, 131). This meaning de-
velops into that of the source from which connection or
ownership arises (49), and also into that of the agency
from which an act is done or a condition caused (169).
The prepositional phrase containing de must be so placed
as to avoid ambiguity in its meaning, or must be reinforced
by an adverb or other word:

La arbo estas malproksima de la domo, the tree is far from the house,
6i estas proksima de la fardeno, it is near to (from) the garden.
Mi prenas la libron for de la knabo, I take the book away from the boy.
Mi prenas la libron de la knabo, I take the book of the boy.
La afero dependas de vi, the matter depends upon (from) you.

WORD DERIVATION FROM PRIMARY ADVERBS.

171. Adjectives, verbs, and nouns may be derived from
primary adverbs (66), as well as from prepositions (120,
159):

La nunaj metodoj, the present methods (methods of-novS).

Mi adiauis lin per adiafla saluto, I bade farewell to him, by a farewell

salute (see also 273).
Ni faris tujan interSanf on, we made an immediate exchange.

128 LESSON XXXVL [§172

Cu li skribis jesan au nean respondon? Did he write an affirmative
or a negative answer?

Anstatau nei, li respondis jese, instead of denying, he answered affirm-
atively.

La morgaiia festo estos pli agrabia ol la hieraua, tomorrow's {the mor-
row's) celebration will be more pleasant than that of yesterday.

La tiamaj personoj estis liaj samtempuloj, the persons of-that-time
were his contemporaries.

THE SUFFIX -1ST-.
172. The suffix -ist- is added to roots to express the
profession, trade or occupation connected with the idea
in the root:

floristo, florist. okulisto, oculist.

komercisto, trader, merchant. presisto, printer.

servisto, servant. Stelisto, thief.

VOCABULABY.

administr-i, to manage. mont-o, mountain.

antikv-a, ancient.* nom-o, name.

Europ-o, Europe. proksim-a, near.

grav-a, important, serious. reprezent-i, to represent.

ital-a, Italian. respublik-o, republic.

kvadrat-a, square. tiran-o, tyrant.

ANTIKVA RESPUBLIKO.

La plej antikva respubliko en Eiiropo kusas en la norda
parto de la be! a itala lando, inter la maro kaj la rivero,

* The words antikva, maljuna, malnova, all of which may at times be trans-
lated " old," must not be confused in use:

Mi havas malnovan capelon, / have an old hat (a hat which is not new).
Li estas maljuna sinjoro, he is an old {aged) gentleman^

Li estas malnova amiko mia, he is an old friend of mine (a friend of long standing) .
La hinoj estis kleraj ec en la antikva tempo, the Chinese were learned even in the

olden time {in ancient time).
La antikvaj kleruloj jam soils tre multe, the ancient learned {enlightened) men

already knew a great deal.
La maljuna sinjoro en la malnovaj vestoj estas antikvisto, the old gentleman with

the old clothes is an antiqiiary.

§172] LESSON XXXVI. 129

proksime de la montoj. Gia nomo estas San Marino, kaj
gi estas respubliko de antati mil kvarcent jaroj . Kvankam
la fiirkauaj landoj kaj nacioj apartenis en antikva 5
tempo al la tiamaj regoj, San Marino jam estis libera.
Giaj aferoj estas ankorau administrataj tiel, kiel la anoj
(145) volas, ne kiel unu aii alia rego ail tirano deziras.
Dufoje en la jaro la anoj elektas personojn, kiuj adminis-
tros la gravajn aferojn de la respubliko dum la sekvontaj 10
ses monatoj. Kvardek ses el tiuj personoj reprezentas la
anojn, kaj unu alia estas rego tiun duonon da jaro. Per
tia metodo, la anoj estas bone reprezentataj, kaj la aferoj
estas administrataj kiel eble plej sage. La tuta respu-
bliko enhavas nur dudek du kvadratajn mejlojn da tero. is
En la respubliko kaj la tiea (171) uxbo kiu havas la saman
nomon, ne estas tiom da personoj kiom en multaj italaj
urboj. Tamen ci tiu respubliko estas pli granda ol multaj
antikvaj grekaj respublikoj. La grekaj respublikoj estis
bonekonataj, kaj enhavis multe da kleruloj inter siaj anoj. 20
Sed en la nuna tempo la grekoj havas regon. Oni ne
trovas tre klerajn personojn en San Marino, tamen la
laboristoj estas energiaj, kaj laboras kiel eble plej multe.
La rikoltistoj plej ofte havas bonajn rikoltojn, kaj la
plimulto da personoj estas treege kontenta kaj felica. Oni 25
ne pensas pri komerco aii eksterlandaj (167, a) aferoj
kaj ne volas vojagi malproksimen de la bone amata hejmo.
Oni preferas gaje amuzi sin cehejme (167, a), en la liber-
tempo inter la rikoltoj, kaj la vivo tute ne sajnas malfaeila
aii teda.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. The serious affairs of a republic are managed by
persons representing the persons who live there. 2. The
inhabitants are well represented, and as free as possible.
3. Enlightened persons often prefer to live in a republic.

130 LESSON XXXVII. [§173

4. Persons who have a good king are very happy, but those
who have a bad king are as unhappy as possible. 5.
Nowadays (nuntempe) there are very few tyrants. 6.
The majority of the kings of Europe are praiseworthy.
7. That nation which was most enlightened a thousand
years ago was the Chinese nation. 8. The Chinese of-that-
time already had good printers among them. 9. It is said
(54) that the Chinese drink as much tea as two or three
contemporary nations. 10. The oldest republic in Europe
is named San Marino. 11. It is near the mountains, in
the northern part of the much praised Italian land. 12.
It contains onty twenty-two square miles, and is therefore
one of the smallest republics in the world. 13. Fourteen
hundred years ago it was already a republic, and it is still
that same republic. 14. The inhabitants are energetic
and patient, and have as much to eat as they need. 15.
There are bakers and shopkeepers (172) and many la-
borers among them. 16. They do not think about com-
merce, or greatly (multe) change their customs. 17.
They seldom take (faras) tiresome journeys, but remain
peacefully (pace) at home.

LESSON XXXVII.

THE DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUN,

173. The distributive pronoun (and pronominal ad-
jective) is ciii, each{one), every{one). Sometimes it is
equivalent to English any, as in " Any one who studies
can learn," etc. The plural is ciuj, every, all* The arti-

* The use of ciu and ciuj must be distinguished from that of the adjective
tuta, which means " all " in the sense of " entire":
Ciuj viroj laboras la tutan tagon, all men work all (the whole) day.
Mi vidis £iun vizagon, sed mi ne vidis la tutan vizagoa de ciu viro, I saw every
face, bui I did not see all the face of each Tnan,

§§174-176] LESSON XXXVII. 131

cle is never interposed between ciuj and tlie noun modified
(as in English " all the men "), and is .used only if £iuj is
pronominal and followed by el:

Ciu, kiu studos, lernos, every one who studies will learn.

Mi vidis £iun el ili, kaj parolis al ciu knabo, / saw each of them, and

talked to every boy.
Mi dankas vin ciujn, / thank you all (I thank all of you).
Ni ciuj estas reprezentataj, we are all (all of us are) represented,
Ciuj el la maristoj alvenis, all {every one) of the sailors arrived.

174. The distributive pronoun has a possessive or geni-
tive form £ies, every-one's, every-body's:

Li konas files nomon, he knows every-one's name.

Cies opinio estis diversa, every-body's opinion was different.

Kies vofiojn mi audas? Cies, whose voices do I hear"! Everybody's.

THE PREPOSITION PO.

175. The preposition po, at the rate of, at, is used chiefly
before cardinals and has a distributive sense:

Li niar§as po kvar mejloj fiiutage, he walks at the rate of four miles

daily {every-day).
Mi acetis kafon po malalta prezo, / bought coffee at a lovj price.
Mi aSetis viandon po kvarono da dolaro per fuuto, / bought meat at a

quarter of a dollar for {per) pound.
La capelisto acetas fiapelojn pogrande, the hatter buys hats wholesale.

DEPENDENT COMPOUNDS.

176. A compoimd word whose first element is a sub-
stantive, dependent upon the second element in some
prepositional relation, is called a dependent compound.
(If the two words were not united into one, the first ele-
ment would be preceded by a preposition, or would be in

132 LESSON XXXVII. [§176

the accusative case.) The ending -o may be omitted
from the first element of a dependent compound: *

jarcento, century (cento da jaroj).
mangocambro, dining-room (cambro por mangoj),
noktomezo, midnight (mezo de la nokto).
paperfaristo, papermaker (faristo de papero).
sunbrilo, sunshine (brilo de la suno).
tagmezo, noon (mezo de la tago) .
vespermango, supper (mango je la vespero).
ventoflago, weathercock (flago por la vento).

VOCABULABY.

cies, every body's (174). lag-o, lake.

6iu, every-body (173). po, at the rate of (175).

decid-i, to decide. sever-a, severe.

dev-o, duty. stang-o, pole.

fleks-i, to bend. svis-o, Swiss.

genu-o, knee. vend-i, to sell.

intenc-i, to intend. Vilhelm-o, William,

ju|-i, to judge. vort-o, word.

LA CAPELO SUR la STANGO.

'Antaii ol Svislando estis tiel libera kiel la nuna svisa
respubliko, giaj aferoj estis administrataj de personoj kiuj
reprezentis aliajn natiojn. Ofte tiuj personoj estis kiel
eble plej severaj jugistoj al la svisoj. Unufoje plej kruela

stirano estis administranta aferojn svisajn. Li elpensis
rimarkindan metodon por montri sian povon (power), kaj
por esti malagrabla al la svisoj. Li decidis meti sian
fiapelon sur altan stangon en la vendejo (market-place), en
malgranda vilago apud bela lago inter la altaj montoj.

10 Li diris ke de nun tiu capelo reprezentas lin, kaj portos lian

* A personal pronoun serving as the first element of a dependent compound
may keep the accusative ending, to indicate its construction:
sinlaudo, self-praise. sinekzameno, self-examination.

sindefendo, self-defence. sinkontraudira, self -contradictory.

§176] LESSON XXXVII. 133

nomon. Saluti la capelon estos la grava devo de ciu per-
sono en la vilago. Estos cies devo ne nur saluti la capelon,
sed ankau genufleksi (kneel) antau la stango. La tirano
diris ke li forprenos la domon, la kampojn kaj tiom da
mono, kiom li povos, de 6iu vilagano au kamparano kiu ib
forgesos genufleksi. " Mi intencas sendi gardistojn," li
diris, " kiuj rimarkos cu vi ciuj genufleksos kiam vi estas
proksimaj de la stango.'' Je tagmezo alvenis gardistoj,
por rimarki 6u la necesaj salutoj estos farataj de 6iuj, kaj
por kapti 6iujn svisojn kiuj ne genufleksis. Baldau la so
kamparanoj komencis eniri la vendejon, por vendi lego-
mojn po kiel eble altaj prezoj, kaj por aceti vestojn kaj
aliajn aferojn po treege plej malaltaj prezoj. Ciu, kiu iris
proksimen de la stango, zorge genufleksis antati la 6apelo
de la malamata tirano, pro timo pri la hejmoj kaj la fa- 25
milioj. Fine, kamparano, kies nomo estis Vilhelmo Tell,
eniris la vendejon, kaj staris du aii tri minutojn proksime
de la stango, dum li diris kelkajn vortojn al amiko. Sed
anstatati fari tujan saluton, aii genufleksi, li tute ne ri-
gardis la stangon. 30

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. The day before yesterday my youngest cousin was
sitting on my Icnee, and I told him that a rainbow [cielarko)
is made by the sunshine and the rain. 2. My cousin goes
to school every day, after he has breakfast in the dining-
room. 3. A new school is being built, not far from the
home of the judge. 4. It is my cousin's duty to study
those books at the rate of ten pages a day. 5. My cousin
and I decided last night (93) to buy new hats for ourselves.

6. We intend to go to the hatter's early tomorrow morning.

7. I think that all clothes are being sold at a low price
at-the-present-time. 8. During a visit at a friend's, I

134 LESSON XXXVIII. [§§177-178

read an interesting book about ancient Europe. 9. It
relates that several centuries ago a severe and cruel tyrant
was managing affairs in Switzerland. 10. Once he put his
hat on a pole in the market-place, and said that it was the
duty of-every-one to kneel before it. 11. This serious affair
happened in a village one or two miles square, on(ce) the
lake not far from the mountains through which one goes
on the wajr (167, a) to the Italian land. 12. William
Tell did not kneel or even look at the hat representing the
tyrant.

LESSON XXXVIII.

THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVE.

177. The distributive adjective related to the distribu-
tive pronoun ciu, giving a comprehensive idea of the quality
of some person or thing, is 6ia, every kind of, every sort of:

Oni vendas 6iajn fruktojn tie, they sell every sort of fruit there.
Estas £iaj personoj en la mondo, there are all sorts of persons in the
world.

THE IMPERFECT PASSIVE TENSE.

178. The compound tense formed by combining the
present passive participle with the past tense of the auxil-
iary verb est! expresses an act or condition as being under-
gone by the subject of the verb at some time in the past.
It is called the imperfect passive tense. The conjugation
of vidi in this tense is as follows:

mi estis vidata, I was' (being) seen.

vi estis vidata, you were (being) seen.

li (§i, gi) estis vidata, he (she, it) was (being) seen,

ni estis vidataj, we were (being) seen.

vi estis vidataj, you were (being) seen.

ili estis vidataj, they were (being) seen.

§§179-181] LESSON xxxvin. 135

COMPOUND TENSES OF IMPERSONAL VERBS.

179. When impersonal verbs, or other verbs used im-
personalljr, are in compound tenses, the participial element
is given the ending -e, like other modifiers of impersonally
used verbs (141) •

Estis pluvante antaii unu miauto, it was raining a minute ago.

Estis multe neginte, it had snowed a great deal.

Estis vidate ke ciu ploras, it was seen that every one wept.

RECIPROCAL EXPRESSIONS.

180. To give a reciprocal sense, when there are two or
more subjects and the action goes from one to the other
(expressed in English by " each other," " one another,"
" mutually," " reciprocally "), the phrases unu la alian,
unu al la alia, etc., or the adverb reciproke, is used:

Estas nia devo helpi unu la alian, it is our duty to help one another.
Ili parolas unu al la alia, they are talking to each other.
La viroj reciproke uzis siajn pafilojn, the men used each other's guns,
Ili falls unu sur la alian, they fell upon each other.

THE SUFFIX -UJ-.

181. The suffix -uj- may be used to form words indi-
cating that which contains, hears, or is a receptacle for , some
number or quantity of that which is expressed by the root.
It may be used instead of -lando to form the name of a
region containing any one race or tribe, and instead of
-arbo to form the names of fruit trees:

ujo, a receptacle. patrujo (patrolando), fatherland.

monujo, purse. sukerujo, sugar-bowl.

supujo, soup-tureen. pomujo (pomarbo), apple-tree.

leterujo, letter-case. sagujo, quiver.

136 LESSON xxxvni. [§181

VOCABULAHY.

ag-i, to ad. ^ mort-i, to die.
ceter-a, remaining. pet-i, to plead, to request.

cia, of every kind (177). prepar-i, to prepare.

fier-a, proud. • pun-i, to punish.

imag-i, to imagine. reciprok-a, reciprocal, mutual.

-•' konduk-i, to lead. simil-a, like, similar.

kor-o, heart. tu§-i, to touch.

VILHELMO TELL KAJ LA POMO.

Tuj kiam la gardistoj rimarkis ke la capelo sur la stango
ne estis salutata de Vilhelmo Tell^ ill kaptis lin, kaj kon-
dukis lin al la tirano, por esti jugata. La tirano demandis
de Tell kial li ne genufleksis antau la 6apelo, simile al la
saliaj vilaganoj. Tell respondis fiere ke li ne sciis pri la
ciutagaj genufleksoj de la aliaj personoj. Li diris ke li
tute ne intends agi kontrau la deziroi de la jugistoj. Sed
la tirano malamis la altan fortan svison, tial li decidis puni
lin per severa puno, kaj demandis " Kiun el viaj infanoj vi

loplej amas? " Vilhelmo Tell ne povis imagi kial la demando
estas farata al li, kaj respondis " Mi amas ciujn el ili, sin-
joro." La tirano diris " Nu, estas rakontate inter la
vilaganoj ke vi estas rimarkinda arkpafisto (archer). Ni
eltrovos kia arkpafisto vi estas. Ni vidos cu vi povos

IS forpafi pomon de sur la kapo de via plej juna filo. Aldone
(in addition), estos via devo forpafi la pomon per la unua
sago, alie {otherwise) mi punos vin kaj vian filon per
tuja morto." Tell diris ke li estas preta por ricevi cian
alian punon, anstataii tia puno, sed malgraii 6ies petoj la

sotirano estis jam elektanta pomon de apuda pomarbo.
Li kondukis la knabon malproksimen de la ceteraj per-
sonoj, kaj metis la pomon sur lian kapon. Tell kaj la filo
reciproke rigardis sin, dum la patro diris ke li ne tusos

§181] LESSON XXXVIII. 137

haron de lia kapo. Tiam li elprenis sagon el la sagujo,
faris la necesajn preparojn, kaj rapide pafis. Tuj la pomo85
forfalis de la kapo de la infano, kaj 6iu havis felican
koron. Dum Tell 6irkauprenis la filon, la tirano deman-
dis " Kial vi havas tiun ceteran sagon, en la mano."
Tell lafite respondis " Por mortpafi vin, tuj post la infano,
6ar mi treege timis pro la vivo de mia kara filo." so

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. William Tell had a strong flexible (i6i) bow. 2.
He could shoot-with-a-bow (arkpafi) excellently, therefore
he was a well-known archer. 3. He put six or eight ar-
rows into his quiver, and went with his sons to the village.
4. Possibly he saw the hat upon the pole, but he did not
kneel before it. 5. It was being noticed already in the
village that Tell hated the tyrant very much. 6. When
the guards seized him for that act, and led him before the
tyrant, who was also the judge, Tell said " I did not
know about this new duty, and could not imagine why the
hat was on the pole there." 7. The tyrant replied with
(per) angry words, for he hated the proud Swiss whom
every one else loved. 8. He said severely " Ifis said that
you are a praiseworthy archer. 9. Therefore I was won-
dering whether you could shoot an apple from your son's
head. 10. Now we shall see whether you can shoot off the
apple, or whether you will touch the child's head." 11.
Amid the pleadings of all. Tell successfully shot off the
apple. 12. A similar second arrow was ready in his hand.
13. The tyrant saw the remaining arrow, and prepared to
punish Tell by death. 14. But he escaped, and the Swiss
congratulated each other heartily (kore). 15. After some
time they followed him, at the rate of six miles an hour.

138 LESSON XXXIX. [§§182-184

LESSON XXXIX.

THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADVERB OF PLACE.

182. The distributive adverb of place, related to the dis-
tributive pronoun ciu, is cie, everywhere. The ending -n
may be added to cie to show direction of motion (121) :

Oni trovas tiajn virojn cie, such men are found everywhere.

Li iris £ien, kie mi estis estinta, he went everywhere where I had been.

Mi vidas lin £ie, kien mi iras, / see him everywhere I go.

THE FUTURE PASSIVE TENSE.

183. The compound tense formed by combining the
present passive participle with the future tense of esti
indicates that an act or condition will be undergone by the
subject of the verb. It is called the future passive tense.
The conjugation of vidi in this tense is as follows:

mi estos vidata, I shall be seen.
vi estos vidata, you will be seen.
li (§i, gi) estos vidata, he {she, it) will be seen.
ni estos vidataj, we shall be seen.
vi estos vidataj, you will be seen.
ili estos vidataj, they will be seen.
f

POSSESSIVE COMPOUNDS.

184. Compound adjectives may be formed with an ad-
jectival root for the first element, and a noun-root for
the second element. Such adjectives have the meaning
" possessed of " that which is indicated in the compound.
(Similar adjectives are formed in English, with -ed as
the final syllable):

belbrova, beautiful-browed. longnaza, long-nosed.

bonintenca, good-inlenlioned. kvarpieda, four-footed.

dumana, two-handed. rughara, red-haired.

§§185-186] LESSON XXXIX. 139

THE TIME OF DAY.

185. The ordinals are used in expressing the hour of the
day, with hero expressed or understood. The minutes are
expressed by the cardinals. In qxiestions the adjective
kiotna (from kiom, how much) is used:

Kioma horo estas? What hour {what o'clock, what time) is it?
Je kioma horo vi venos? At what time {what o'clock) will you come?
Estas la dua horo, it is two o'clock {it is the second hour).
Estas la tria kaj kvin minutoj, it is five minutes past three.
Ni iris je la sesa kaj duono, we went at half past six.
Estas la oka kaj kvardek kvin (or: estas unu kvarono antau la naua),
it is eight forty- five {a quarter of nine),

THE SUFFIX -OBL-.

186. The suffix -obi- is used to form multiples indicating
how many fold, as " two fold," " double," " triple," etc.:

duoblo, a double. duobla, double. duoble, doubly.

kvarobla, quadruple. kvindekobla, fifty- fold. multohla, manifold,
Trioble du estas ses, three times two is six.

VoCABULAIiy.

bilet-o, ticket. pag-i, to pay.

cend-o, cent. preter, beyond, past.*

tie, everywhere (182). staci-o, station.

esprim-o, expression. telefon-i, to telephone

gi£et-o, wicket, ticket-window. vagon-o, car.

horlog-o, clock. valiz-o, valise.

EN LA STACIDOMO.

Du bonkoraj (184) amikoj miaj logas en la urbo B — .
Ni reciproke konas nin de antaii ses jaroj. Mi estis duoble

* The preposition preter indicates the movement of something alongside of
and passing beyond something else. Since it does not express motion tovxird
its complement, it cannot be followed by the accusative.

140 LESSON XXXIX. [§186

goja hierau kiam mi ricevis leteron de ili, car en fciu ili petis
de mi baldauan viziton. Tial mi telefonis hierau post-

stagmeze* ai la stacidomo, por demandi je kioma horo
foriros la vagonaro (train) al B — . Oni respondis per la
telefono ke la vagonaro foriros je la tria kaj tridek kvin.
Tuj poste mi enmetis kelkajn vestojn en mian jam preskati
eluzitan valizon, kaj faris ciujn preparojn por la mallonga

lovojago. Je la dua horo, tuj post la tagmango (midday
meal), mi mar sis stacidomon. Survoje mi eniris butikon
kaj afietis paron da novaj gantoj. Kiam mi eniris la
stacidomon, mi kuris preter la aliaj personoj al la gifieto
kie biletoj estas vendataj. Mi diris al la sinjoro 6e la

15 giceto " Mi deziras bileton al B — . Kiom estos necese
pagi?" La brunokula sinjoro respondis " Tia bileto
kostos dolaron dudek cendojn." Mi pusis tiom da mono
tra la giceto, kaj tuj ricevis la bileton, kiun la sinjoro jam
havis en la mano. Tiam mi iris proksimen de la pordego

80 tra kiu oni estos enlasata al la vagonaro. " Kiom da
tempo antaii la foriro de la vagonaro al B — ?" mi demandis
al la gardisto. Li lautvo6e respondis " Nur sep minutojn.
Cu vi ne vidas tiun horlogon?" Mi ne estis rimarkinta la
horlogon, tial mi almetis la montrilojn de mia poshorlo^o

25 (watch) por montri la saman horon. Mi estis multe tusata
de 6iaj bonintencaj personoj kurantaj 6ien preter mi, kaj
puSantaj unu la alian. Fine oni malfermis la pordegon.
Mi kaj la ceteraj personoj rapidis al la vagonaro kaj Idel
able plej baldau eniris gin.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Because of the request of my friend whose brother
died recently, I went last (la antauan) week to visit him.

* Posttagmezo, afternoon^ is a descriptive compound (167, a) whose second
element tagmezo is a dependent compound (176).

§§187-188] LESSON XL. 141

2. The remaining persons of his family were not at home.

3. I telephoned to find out at what time the train would
depart. 4. I was told (54) that it would leave at four
twenty-seven. 5. I put enough money into my purse, and
carried along (kunportis) a valise into which I had put some
clothes. 6. When I entered the stati&n, I hurried past the
other people to the wicket, and asked for (petis) a ticket to
B — . 7. The ticket seller said "Two dollars and forty
cents." 8. I could not imagine why it was necessary to
pay so much, but I at once pushed that much money
through the window, and received the ticket. 9. Then I
looked at my watch and went near the gate, but the
yellowhaired guard who conducts persons to the trains
said " Persons who go through that gate before the train
arrives will be severely punished." 10. So all of us stood
near the double gate. 11. The trains are much like each
other, and it is better to act as the guards request, and not
express impatience.

LESSON XL.

THE DISTRIBUTIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB.

187. The distributive adverb of time, related to the
distributive pronoun ciu, is ciam, always, at all times:

Vi ciam pagas tro multe, you always pay too much.

Mi estas ciam preta por helpi vin, I am always ready to help you.

THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADVERB CIAL.

188. The distributive adverb of motive or reason, re-
lated to the pronoun ciu, is cial, for every reason, for all
reasons:

Cial li estas felica hodiau, for every reason he is happy today.
La mia cial estas la plej bona, mine is for all reasons the best.

142 LESSON XL. [§§189-191

THE PAST PASSIVE PARTICIPLE.

189. The past passive participle expresses an act or
condition as having been undergone by the person or thing
indicated by the word modified. This participle ends in
-ita, as vidita, having been seen:

La prezo pagita de vi estis tro granda, the price paid by you was too

great.
La punita infano ploras, the (having-been) punished child is crying.
Mi acetos bonefaritajn gantojn, / shall buy well-made gloves.
Li sercis ia forgesitan bileton, he looked for the forgotten ticket.

THE PERFECT PASSIVE TENSE.

190. The compound tense formed by combining the past
passive participle with the present tense of the verb esti
expresses an act or condition which has been undergone by
the subject of the verb. It is called the perfect passive
tense. The conjugation of the verb vidi in this tense is as
follows:

.mi estas vidita, / have been seen (/ am having-been^seen).

vi estas vidita, you have been seen.

li (§i, |i) estas vidita, he {she, it) has been seen.

ni estas viditaj, we have been seen.

vi estas viditaj, you have been seen.

ili estas viditaj, they have been seen.

THE PREPOSITION LAtJ-.

191. In expressing that in accordance with which some-
thing is done, takes place, moves, etc., the preposition
laflisused:

Li agis lafl sia opinio, he acted in accordance with his own opinion.
Mi faros gin laii bona metodo, I shall do it according to a good method.
Laii kia maniero li agis? In what manner did he actf
Mi marSis lau la strato, / walked down {or up) the street.

§192] LESSON XL. 143

Li iris lau la rivero per tiu vojo, he went along the river by that road.
Nuboj nigraj kuris lau la cielo, black clouds raced along the sky.
6i kusas laulonge de la domo, it lies lengthwise of the house.

THE SUFFIX -EM-.

192. The suffix -em- indicates a tendency or inclination

toward that which is expressed in the root:

agema, active. pacema, peaceful, pacific.

mallaborema, lazy. pensema, pensive, thoughtful.

Vocabulary.

atend-i, to wait (for), to expect. lau, according to (191).

cial, for every reason (188). manier-o, manner, way.

ciam, always (187). mov-i, to move (transitive)

gazet-o, magazine, gazette. okup-i, to occupy.

3urnal-o, journal, paper pal-a, pale.

kompat-i, to pity. polic-o, police.

larm-o, tear. trankvil-a, calm, tranquil.

LA PERDITA INFANO.

Dum mi estis atendanta hieraii posttagmeze en la sta-
cidomo, mi subite rimarkis palan sinjorinon kun larmoj
en siaj okuloj. Si rigardis 6ien kun esprimo de nekasebla
timo, kaj estis videble maltrankvila. Si sercis du ati
tri minutojn inter la personoj fiirkau si, kaj fine §i vidis s
bluevestitan policanon, kiu estis parolanta al unu el la
gardistoj. Si rapide diris kelkajn vortojn al li, kaj tuj li
ankati komencis serci 6ie. Mi tre kompatis la ploreman sin-
jorinon, kaj kiam la policano preteriris, mi demandis 6u mi
ne povas helpi. Mi diris ke mi ne estos okupata (busy) 10
|is la alveno de la vagonaro. Li respondis ke la filo de tiu
virino estas perdita, kaj li donis al mi la sekvantan pri-
skribon de la infano, lau la vortoj de. la patrino: la knabo

144 LESSON XL. [§192

estas agema brunhara sesjarulo, kun bluaj okuloj, kaj li

isestas ruge vestita {dressed in red). Lia patrino estis jus
a6etinta sian bileton ce la gi6eto, kaj post kiam si pagis la
natidek cendojn por gi, subite si rimarkis ke la infano ne
estis kun si. Kvankam si jam sercis 6ie, la filo sajnas
ankorati netrovebla. Si multe timas pro li, kvankam 11

20 ciam estas bona knabo. Mi tuj komencis marsi cien inter
la personoj fiirkaii mi, kaj fine eniris malgrandan 6ambron
apud la horlogo ce la fino de la stacidomo, kie estas ven-
dataj tagjurnaloj (newspapers), gazetoj kaj libroj. Tie
antaii nemovebla tablo kovrita de brile koloritaj jurnaloj

25staris malgranda ruge vestita knabo. Mi diris al li " Mia
studema juna amiko, oni ne vojagas laii tiu metodo. Via
patrino jam de longe atendas vin. Mi montros al vi kie
si estas." Li venis kun mi, kaj proksime de la pordo kie
mi estis lasinta mian valizon staris la sinjorino. Si estis

30 6ial ^oja kiam si vidis nin, kaj dankeme 6irkaiiprenis la
infanon.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. The poor (to-be-pitied) lady whose little boy (son) was
lost i'l the station yesterday afternoon was very uneasy
about him for every reason. 2. She was pale and tearful
(plorema) when I saw her, and looked in every direction
in a most impatient manner. 3. There was an expres-
sion of fear upon her face and she went as quickly as pos-
sible to a nearby policeman, and said a few (IceTkajn) words
to him. 4. T heard the last words, and at once said to my-
self " It is now only ten minutes past two. 5. My train
will leave (foriros) at half-past two, so I have time to help."
6. I said to the blue-garbed policeman " During the next
(sekvontajn) twenty minutes I shall not be busy. Do you
desire my help?" 7. He answered " Yes, you are very

§§193-195] LESSON xLi. 145

kind (gentila). The son of that lady has been lost. S.
According to her description, he is a yellow-haired blue-
eyed five-year-old, and apparently (Sapie) too restless
(movema). 9. I shall find him as soon as possible, never-
theless I shall gladly accept your help. 10. The child is
dressed in white and wears a red hat." 11. As (car) I am
not at all lazy {mallahorema) , I went along the stationary
(nemoveblaj) tables as-far-as the end of the station, and
there I saw that-sort-of child, looking at the magazines and
newspapers. 12. I led him to the lady, who with tears in
her eyes was just going to telephone to her husband.

LESSON XLI.

THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADVERB ClEL.

193. The distributive adverb of manner, related to the
distributive pronoun ciu, is ciel, in every way, in every
manner:

Li povas £iel prepari gin, he can prepare it in every manner.
Li estos ciel helpata, he will he helped in every way.

THE DISTRIBUTIVE ADVERB ClOM.

194. The distributive adverb of quantity, related to the
distributive pronoun ciu, is ciom, every quantity, the whole,
all:

Li prenis multe da sukero, sed ne ciom da gi, he look a great deal of

sugar, but not all of it.
Li elprenis ciom de la teo el la teujo, he took all of the tea out of the tea

caddy.

THE PLUPERFECT PASSIVE TENSE.

195. The compound tense made by combining the past
passive participle with the past tense of the verb esti

146 LESSON XLi. [§§196-197

expresses an act or condition which had been undergone by
the subject of the verb at some point in past time. It is
called the pluperfect passive tense. The conjugation of
vidi in this tense is as follows:

mi estis vidita, / had been seen (I was having-been-seen).

vi estis vidita, you had been seen.

li (§i, ^i) estis vidita, he (she, it) had been seen.

ni estis viditaj, we had been seen.

vi estis viditaj, you had been seen.

ili estis viditaj, they had been seen.

THE FUTURE PERFECT PASSIVE TENSE.

196. The compound tense made by combining the past
passive participle with the future tense of the. verb esti
expresses an act or condition which will have been under-
gone by the subject of the verb at some point in future
time. It is called the future perfect passive tense. The
conjugation of vidi in this tense is as follows:

mi estos vidita, / shall have been seen {shall be having-been-seen).

vi estos vidita, you will have been seen.

li (si, gi) estos vidita, he (she, it) will have been seen.

ni estos viditaj, we shall have been seen.

vi estos viditaj, you will have been seen.

ili estos viditaj, they will have been seen.

THE EXPRESSION OP MATERIAL.

197. The material out of which something is made or
constructed is expressed by use of the preposition el.
As in English, an adjective may be used instead of the
prepositional phrase unless a verb or participle lays stress
upon the fact of construction:

La tablo estas farita el ligno, the table is made out of wood.
La tablo estas ligna (el ligno), the table is wooden (of wood).

§198] LESSON XLI. 147

La infanoj konstruis domon el ne§;o, the children built a house of {out

of) snow.
Oni faras supon el asparago, they make soup out of asparagus.

THE SUFFIX -ET-.

198. The suffix -et- indicates diminution of degree in
that which is expressed by the root. It is thus in contrast
to the augmentative suffix -eg- (122). Sometimes an
affectionate significance is given:

beleta, pretty. libreto, booklet.

dormeti, to doze. monteto, hill.

floreto, floweret, floret. rideti, to smile.

lageto, pond, small lake. vojeto, path.

Vocabulary.

best-o, animal. leon-o, lion.

tiel, in every way (193). lud-i, to play.

ciom, the whole, all (194). material-o, material.

donac-o, gift, present. posed-i, to own, to possess.

drap-o, cloth. pup-o, doll.
hund-o, dog. • rost-i, to roast.
konsist-i, to consist. • ver§-i, to pour.

LA DONACO.

Mi volas doni beletan donacon al mia plej juna fratino
morgati, sed ju ph mi pensas pri gi, des ph malfacile estas
decidi pri la afero. Estas duoble malfacile, 6ar si jam
posedas ciun ludilon (toy) kiun oni povas imagi. Ciu el
siaj amikoj goje donacas {make presents) al tiel afabla 5
knabino. Tamen mi iris hierati matene al ludilobutiko,
kaj rigardis la ludilojn tie. Multaj konsistis el diversaj
pupoj, grandaj kaj malgrandaj, kaj belege vestitaj. Sed
mi estas certa ke la fratineto ja,m posedas sufifie da pupoj-
tial mi ne aSetis tian ludilon, kvankam ili estas fiiamio

148 LESSON XLI. [§198

interesaj al knabinetoj. Sur unu tablo kusis ciaj malgran-
daj bestoj, faritaj el ligno, drapo, kaj diversaj materialoj.
Estis fievaletoj, hundetoj, katetoj, kaj flavaj leonetoj.
Proksime de tiuj staris malgrandaj brile koloritaj vago-

15 naroj, kiujn oni povis rapide movi, lau la maniero de grandaj
vagonaroj. Etaj policanoj staris apude, kaj estis 6ial
malfacile elekti la plej interesan el tiom da interesaj
hidiloj. Baldaii mi rimarkis knabineton apud mi. Ciel
si tre similis al mia fratino, kaj tial mi decidis elekti tian

20 ludilon, kia estos elektita plej frue de la nekonata knabi-
neto. Mi atendis trankvile, kaj ec legis unu aii du pagojn
de miaj jus afietitaj gazetoj kaj tagjurnaloj. Fine la
beleta infano estis rigardinta preskaii fiiom de la ludiloj
kiuj okupis la tablojn, dum la kompatinda servistino lace

25 sin sekvis. Tiam la knabineto kriis " Ho, kiel beleta pupo-
domo! Estas litoj en la dormofiambroj ; legomoj kaj ros-
tita viando, faritaj el papero, ku§as sur la tablo en la
man^o-6ambro ; kaj mi vidas tie pupon, kiu certe |us
faris la teon, kaj estas elversonta gin en tiujn tasetojn!"

3oTuj mi faris decidon lau la plezuro de la knabineto, kaj
baldati la pupodomo estis a6etita por mia fratineto.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. My pale delicate (malsanema) little sister is always
happy when she has a new toy. 2. Her dolls were made
out of cloth when she was a very little girl, because other-
wise she could too easily break them. 3. But yesterday
my grandmother made a present of a doll (presented a
doll) to her, and since that moment she has been as happy
as possible. 4. I have not seen tears in her eyes, or heard
a cross (koleretan) word. 5. This new doll is made out of
cloth, and its dress consists of very pretty material. 6.
My sister decided that she likes it better than her other

§199] LESSON XLII. 149

playthings, and I think that those poor (kompatindaj)
other dolls will soon have been forgotten. 7. The doll
seems in every way more interesting than the little animals
made out of cloth or wood, which are on the table with her
dolls. 8. She possesses a little dog and a little cat, and a
little lion, and until yesterday she had a wooden pony.
9. The pony is already broken, and has been given away
to a poor {malrica) child, the daughter of our laundress
(lavistino). 10. My sister possesses a small train of cars
which she can move everywhere, and she is very fond of
(ametas) this toy. 11. There are small sacks of sand in the
cars, and usually she is happy when she is pouring the sand
out of one of these into another, or putting all of the sand
into a box, by means of a small spoon. 12. For every
reason I am doubly glad today that she is busied in this
manner (tiamaniere) . 13. 1 wish to take a walk along that
pleasant path toward the hill, instead of waiting for my
little sister. 14. 1 must buy the meat to roast for supper,
before I come home from my walk.

LESSON XLII.

THE FUTURE PASSIVE PARTICIPLE.

199. The future passive participle, expressing that
which will be or is about to be undergone by the person or
thing indicated by the word modified, ends in -ota, as
vidota, about to be seen:

La punota infano mallaiite ploretas, the child about to be punished

whimpers softly.
La formovota tablo estas peza, the table about to he moved away is

heavy.
La domo konstruota de li estos bela, the house going to be built by him

will he beautiful.

150 LESSON XLii. [§§200-202

THE PASSIVE PERIPHRASTIC FUTURE TENSES.

200. The compound tenses formed by combining the
future passive participle with each of the three aoristic
tenses of esti represent an act or condition as about to he
undergone in the present, past, or future, respectively.
These are called passive periphrastic future tenses. Except
when great accuracy is desired, these tenses, like those of
the active voice (153) are not often used. A synopsis of
vidi in the first person singular of these tenses is as follows :

Present Periphrastic Future.
mi estas vidota, / am about to be (going to be) seen.

Past Periphrastic Future.
mi estis vidota, / was about to be (going to be) seen.

Future Periphrastic Future.
mi estos vidota, / shall be about to be (going to be) seen.

THE GENERIC ARTICLE.

201. The article is placed before nouns used in a com-
prehensive or universal sense, indicating a whole class,
kind, substance, or abstract quality. In such use it is
called the generic article:*

La pacienco estas laudinda, patience is praiseworthy .

La vivo surtera estas nur parto de la vivo £iama, life on earth is merely

a part of the life eternal.
La viro estas pli forta ol la virino, man is stronger than woman.

THE SUFFIX -EC-.

202. The suffix -ec- is used to form words indicating the

* Cf. French La patience est amhre, mais son fruit est doux, patience is bitter,
but its fruit is sweet, German Das Leben ist hurtz, life is short, Italian La
speranza e il pan de miseri, hope is the poor man's bread, Spanish Las riquezas son
bagajes de In fortuna, riches are the baggage of fortune, etc. In English the generic
article (as in " the life eternal " above) may often be replaced by omission of
both " a " and " the."

§202] LESSON XLII. 151

abstract quality of that which is expressed in the root, or
formation, to which it is attached:

amikeco, friendship. fleksebleco, flexibility.

ofteco, frequency. patreco, fatherhood.

indeco, worthiness. patrineco, motherhood.

dankemeco, thankfulness. maltrankvileco, uneasiness.

Vocabulary.

bord-o, hank, shore. pont-o, bridge.

brak-o, arm. sonor-i, to ring (intrans.).

fabrik-i, to manufacture. surtut-o, overcoat.

krut-a, steep. sving-i, to swing, to brandish.

lan-o, wool. §ip-o, ship.

mebl-o, piece of furniture. §ton-o, stone.

pas-i, to pass (intrans.)- vapor-o, steam.

pitoresk-a, picturesque. vetur-i, to travel (in a vehicle).

SUR LA VAPORSIPO.

Unu el la plezuroj de la kampara ^'ivo konsistas el la
multenombraj (numerous) okazoj por veturi 6ien, kien oni
volas iri, per kvietaj pitoreskaj vojoj. Ni havas ankorafl
unu (still one, yet another) okazon por plezuro en nia vi-
la^o, 6ar ni povas veturi per vaporsipo sur la bela lago te s
kies bordo kusas la vila^o. Hierati du kuzinoj venis por
viziti te ni, kaj tuj post la tagmango ni decidis promeni
laii tiu pitoreska vojeto al la lago. Kiam ni al venis al la
lago, ni rimarkis ke beleta vapor^ipeto estis jus forironta.
Tial mi afietis tri biletojn, kaj kiel eble plej rapide niio
suriris la sipeton. La sonoriloj (bells) estis jam sonorintaj,
kaj tuj post kiam ni transmarsis la ponteton, de la tero al
la planko de la sipeto, oni forprenis la ponteton. Kelkaj
personoj kiuj estis ankorati sur la tero kuris kun granda
rapideco al la ponteto. Hi svingis la brakojn kaj la om- 15
brelojn tre energie, sed la lipeto ne atendis et unu minuton.

152 LESSON XLII. [§202

La personoj sajnis tre koleraj pro sia malfrueco, kaj
ankoraii pli koleraj pro la trankvila foriro de la sipeto.
Ciu sur la sipeto ridetis, car la koleremo (irascibility) estas

aociam amuza. Tiam 6iu komencis sin amuzi tiel, kiel li
deziris. Mi estis kunportinta dikan lanan surtuton, sed
jjro la varmeco de la vetero mi ne bezonis gin, kaj lasis gin
sur apuda sego. Ni atendis kun plezuro por vidi la krutajn
montetojn kiuj estos videblaj tuj kiam la sipeto estos

sspasinta preter malgranda arbaro. La pitoreskeco de la
belaj montetoj estas difektota, 6ar grandaj fabrikejoj estas
jam konstruataj 6e la montpiedoj. La stonoj por la muroj
jam kusas pretaj apude, ktme kun grandaj stangoj kaj
aliaj pecoj da ligno. Tie oni fabrikos tablojn, segojn,

30 kaj aliajn meblojn el zorge elektita ligno.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. It is difficult in every way to select a present for
a child who already possesses enough toys. 2. In a toy-
shop yesterday I examined the dolls made out of woolen
cloth and other material, and also looked at the various
little animals. 3. There were ponies, little dogs and little
lions and camels. 4. There were also little sets of furniture
(126), which consisted of tables, sofas and chairs. 5. On
the tables were small plates containing vegetables, fruits
and roast (189) meat, entirely made out of colored paper.
6. There were also little cups and tumblers of thin glass,
into which one could pour water or milk. 7. As (car) one
dollar was all (194) of the money which I had in my purse,
I left the shop. 8. I walked along a stony picturesque
path toward the lake, swinging my overcoat on my arm,
while I thought over (pripensis) the difficulty, and tried to
decide what sort of present to choose. 9. The steamboat
to B — was just leaving, so I went across the footbridge

§§203-205] LESSON XLiii. 153

(ponteto) on to the pretty little ship, while its bells were
ringing, and rode an hour in the open (libera) air. 10.
The shore which we passed is very picturesque, but its
beauty is about to be spoiled, for a large furniture factory
is going to be built between that steep hill and the lake.
11. Its proximity to the water is necessary, for water-
power (akvoforto) will be used.

LESSON XLIII.
THE INDEFINITE PRONOUN.

203. The indefinite pronoun (and pronominal adjective)
ill, any one, a certain one, presents the idea of some person
or thing, without definitely characterizing it:

Mi parolas pri iu, kiun vi konas, I am talking about a certain one
whom you know.

Mi vizitis iujn el viaj amikoj, I visited some of your friends.

Mi havas kelkajn pomojn, sed iuj ne estas bonaj, / have several ap-
ples, but certain ones are not good.

Iuj pontoj estas bone faritaj, some bridges are well made.

204. The indefinite pronoun iu has a possessive or geni-
tive form ies, somebody's, someone's, a certain one's:

Mi tusis ies brakon, / touctied someone's arm.

Cu ies surtuto ku§as sur la tablo? 7s anybody's overcoat lying on the

table?
Ies ludiloj estas rompitaj, someone's playthings are broken.

PARTICIPIAL NOUNS.

205. Nouns may be formed from participles, by substi-
tuting the noun ending -o for the adjectival ending -a.
Such participial nouns indicate persons temporarily or

154 LESSON XLiii. [§§206-207

non-professionally performing or undergoing tliat which is

expressed by the root : *

helpanto, one who is helping, an assistant.

elpensinto, one who has thought out something, an inventor.

legonto, one who is about to read.

vidato, one {being) seen.

sendito, one {having been) sent, an envoy.

la jugioto, the one about to be judged, the accused.

THE PREFIX EK-.

206. Sudden or momentary action, or the beginning of
an action or state, is indicated by the prefix ek-:

ekdormi, to jail asleep.
ekkanti, to burst into song.
ekiri, to set out, to start.
ekridi, to burst into a laugh
ekrigardi, to glance at.

THE SUFFIX -ID-.

207. Words indicating the young of, the child of, the
descendant of, are formed by use of the suffix -id- :

fievalido, coU (from cevalo, horse).

hundido, puppy (from hundo, dog).

katido, kitten (from kato, cat).

leonido, a lion's whelp (from leono, lion).

re^dino, a king's daughter, a princess (from refo, king).

VOCABULABY.

amas-0, heap, throng. hirund-o, swallow (bird).

dafir-i, to continue. hom-o, human being. "f

* Participial nouns must not be confused with nouns formed by the suffix
-ist- (172) expressing professional or permanent occupation:
rajdanto, a rider. rajdisto, jockey, horseman.

juganto, a judge (of something). jugisto, judge (professional).

laboranto, a person working. laboristo, laborer.

t C'f. the difference between viro, man (in contrast to virino, woman), and
homo, nmn in the generic sense, including both men and women.

§207] LESSON XLIII. 155

humor-0, temper, humov. ost-o, hone.

ies, some one's (204). renvers-i, to upset, to overturn.

iu, some one (203). sign-o, sign, mark.

kugl-o, hullet. tend-o, tent.

milit-i, to fight, to make war. tru-o, hole.

LA NESTO SUR LA TENDO.

Unufoje iu rego estis farinta militon kontrati la homo] de
lando ce la bordo de pitoreska rivero. La soldatoj ne
venis tien per vaporsipoj, sed estis konstruintaj ponton
trans la rivero, por la veturiloj {vehicles). Estis necese
resti kelkan tempon apud urho kiun la re^o volis ekataki, s
kaj li havis grandan tendaron (encampment) antati tin
urbo. Unu tagon en la daiiro (course) de la milito, iuj
el la soldatoj pasis preter la tendo de la rego, lau la stona
vojeto laii kiu ill ciutage marsis por gardi la tendaron.
Unu el 6i tiuj ekrimarkis ke hirundo estas konstruinta sian 10
neston sur la re^a tendo. Sur la nesto, kiu estis bone
konstruita el koto, sidis trankvile la hirundo. Dum la
soldatoj svingis la brakojn kaj ekridis unu post la alia, pri
la kuraga birdo, la rego aiidis ies vo6on. Li elvenis el sia
tendo por eltrovi kial la parolantoj faras tiom da bruo, kaj 15
kial ili tiel ekkriis kaj ekridis. Kiam la viroj montris al li
la birdon, li diris kun bonhumora rideto, " Tiu hirundo
estos mia gasto. Ciuj el la militistoj certe zorgos de nun
pri la hirundo kaj la hirundidoj." Tial la nesto restis
netusata en la dauro de 6iu batalo. Kelkaj kugloj pasis 20
preter gi, sed la trankvileco de la birdo dauris same kiel
antaue. Fine la re^o venkis, per kruelega batalo. Tuj la
venkintoj forportis la tendojn, kune kun multaj militkap-
titoj (prisoners of war). Nur la tendon de la re^o oni
lasis tie, car la rego diris ke gi nnn apartenas al la hirundo. 25
Cri jam estis malnova kaj eluzita, tra kiu la pluvo eniris per

156 LESSON XLIII. [§207

multe da truoj. Sed gi ankorati staris, gis iu tago somera
kiam la hirundidoj povis jam bone flugi. Tiam la vento
subite renversis gin, kaj gi ekfalis, kaj kusis, amaso da
)6ifonoj, inter multe da kugloj, homaj ostoj, kaj la ceteraj
malgajaj postsignoj (traces) de ies venko sur la batalejo.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. There is a pretty story about a svvallowwhich built its
nest for its young (idoj) on the king's tent. 2. The soldiers
who were walking along the steep path past the tent
glanced at it, and caught sight of (206) the bird. 3. Some
of them burst into a laugh, and gestured (svingis la brakon)
toward the bird, to point it out to their comrades.
4. The good-humored king put on a thick woolen overcoat,
and came out of his tent, to inquire why his soldiers were
conversing so noisily there. 5. The tent was an expensive
one, and contained handsome furniture, as well as (kaj
ankau) a bell which always rang as soon as (tuj kiam) one
touched it. 6. The king immediately noticed the swal-
low's nest, and said with an amiable smile "Surely such a
courageous bird is a worthy (154) guest for a king." 7. The
warriors (172) cared for the swallow as much as possible
during the course of the war. 8. When the victors de-
parted, they left that tent there. 9. Finally the wind up-
set it, and it fell to the ground. 10. The young swallows
already could fly, by (je) that time. 1 1 . The battleground is
covered with bullets, piles of human bones, and similar mel-
ancholy signs of war. 12. War (201) is wicked and shameful
(154). 13. Why do kings and princes wish to make war
upon each other (180)? 14. When their sons have gone
away to (make) war, the mothers of the soldiers are very
uneasy. 15. Perhaps those sons will be prisoners of war.

§§208-210] LESSON XLiv. 157

LESSON XLIV.

THE INDEFINITE ADJECTIVE.

208. The indefinite adjective, related to the indefinite
pronoun iu, is ia, of any kind, some kind of, a certain kind
of, expressing indefinitely the quality of a person or
thing:

Estas ia birdo sur tiu arbo, there is a bird of some sort on that tree.
Mi vidis iajn ostojn sur la tero, I saw some kind of bones on the ground.
Estas ia homo en tiu tendo, there is some sort of human being in that
tent.

THE INDEFINITE ADVERB OF PLACE.

209. The indefinite adverb of place, related to the in-
definite pronoun iu, is ie, anywhere, somewhere, in (at)
a certain place. If the verb in the sentence expresses
motion toward the place indicated by ie, the ending -n is
added (121):

Ie en tiu arbaro estas leono, somewhere in that forest is a lion.

Ie malantau la soldatoj vi troves amason da kugloj, somewhere behind

the soldiers you will find a heap of bullets.
La hirundo flugis ien, the swallow flew somewhere (in some direction).
Mi iros ien, sed mi ankorafl ne scias kien, / am going somewhere, but

I do not yet know where.

PREDICATE NOMINATIVES.

210. An adjective may stand in predicate relation to the
direct object of a transitive verb, as well as to the subject
of an intransitive verb (19). Such a predicate adjective,
agreeing in number (21) with the object of the verb, but
remaining in the nominative case, indicates the result pro-

158 LESSON XLIV. [§211

duced by the verb upon the object, or the condition,
quality or temporary state in which this object is found: *

Li faris la mondon feli£a, he made the world happy {made-happy the

world).
Mi lasis la knabon trankvila, 1 left the hoy calm {undisturbed).
Mi trovis la truon jam farita, / found the hole already made.
Mi lasis ilin bone punitaj, / left them well punished.

211. A noun may be used similarly in predicate relation
after a transitive verb, as well as after an intransitive
vrerb (20) : f

§i nomis sian filinon Mario, she named her daughter Mary.
Oni elektis tiun reprezentanto, they elected that one representative.
Mi vidos lin venkinto, / shall see him a conqueror.
Mi trovis lin Stelisto, I found him a thief.

VOCABULART.

anonc-i, to announce. past-i, to feed (flocks, etc.).

ia, some kind of (208). plend-i, to complain.

ie, somewhere (209). proces-o, legal process.

just-a, upright, just. rajt-o, right, privilege.

klar-a, distinct, clear. ripar-i, to mend, to repair.

kresk-i, to grow. sufer-i, to suffer.

oportun-a, convenient. §nur-o, string.

LA CEVALO KAJ la SONORILO.

TJnufoje en malgranda urbeto (town) en Italujo, la rego,
kiun oni estis nominta Johano, metis grandan sonorilon

* Cf. the difference between the examples given and sentences with the same
words in an attributive (13) use:

Dio faris la mondon felican, God Tnade the happy world.

Mi lasis la knabon trankvilan, / left the calm hoy.

Mi trovis la jam faritan truon, I found the already made hole.

Mi lasis ilin bone punitajn, / left those who had been well punished.

t Cf. the examples given and the following sentences using the same words in
apposition (48) or attributive relation (13) :

§i nomis sian filinon Marion, she named {mentioned) her daughter Mary.
Oni elektis tiun reprezentanton, they Reeled that representative.

§211] LESSON XLIV. 159

en la vendejon. Li anoncis ke ciu plendanto pri maljusteco
havos la rajton alvoki (to summon) ju^iston per tiu sono-
rilo. Tiam la jugisto faros proceson en la jugejo pro tiaj 5
plendantoj. Oni multe uzis la sonorilon, lau la anonco de
la rego, kaj multe da plendantoj ricevis justecon. Sam-
maniere, granda nombro da maljustuloj estis punata per
^ia helpo. Kiam okazis ke iu homo montris sin maljusta
al alia, ci tiu anoncis la aferon per la oportuna sonorilo. lo
Kiam iu faris la edzinon malfelica, la sonorilo tuj sonoris
por anonci siajn suferojn, kaj por alvoki la jugiston.
Fine, oni tiom uzis la sonorilon justecan, ke la snurego
(rope) estis tute eluzita, kaj gia lasta uzinto okaze for-
rompis gin. Sed iu preterpasinto vidis la duonon de la is
snurego kusanta sur la tero, kaj riparis gin per kelkaj
brandetoj de apuda arbo. Li pensis en si " Iu plendonto
nun trovos gin preta por esti uzata." Rimarkinde, la bran-
fietoj ne velkis, sed restis verdaj, kaj kreskis kiel antaiie.

En la sama urbo logis riculo kiu estis forvendinta pres- so
kaii 6iom de siaj domoj, 6evaloj, cevaletoj, fievalidoj,
hundoj kaj multekostaj vestoj, 6ar en sia maljuneco li
amis nur la monon, kaj tiun li amegis. Li ankoraii posedis
nur unu maljunan fievalon, kaj fine li forsendis e6 tiun, por
sin pasti lau la vojo. En la dauro de la tago, la 6evalo25
ekrimarkis la brancetojn kreskantajn sur la snurego de la
sonorilo. Tuj gi kaptis la bran6etojn, pormangi ilin, kaj
tuj la jugisto avidis la sonorilon Idare sonoranta. Li
rapidis al la vendejo, kaj latite ekridis kiam li vidis ies
Sevalon tie. Li decidis puni la riculon fiar tiu ti ne donis30
sufi6e por mangi al la maljuna militfievalo.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. The horse caught sight of the twigs with which a
passer-by had mended the bellrope. 2. Because it wished

160 LESSON XLV. [§212

to eat the green leaves, it seized the rope, and the bell im-
mediately rang loudly and clearly. 3. The horse almost
upset the poles which supported (i6o) the roof over the
bell of-justice. 4. Any one (173) had the right to use
this bell, to announce any kind of injustice. 5. The
judge burst into a laugh as soon as he saw that sort of
plaintiff standing there. 6. More often he saw human
beings as plaintiffs, instead of animals. 7. When a la-
borer showed himself unkind to his wife and children, they
could announce their sufferings by means of the conven-
ient bell. 8. People called it the bell of justice. 9. Ac-
cording to everyone's opinion, it is the duty of a just judge
to punish evildoers and unjust persons. 10. He decided
that he would institute proceedings (faros proceson) against
the owner (205) of the horse. 11. The man had driven
awaj' the horse, and it was grazing (sin pastanta) along the
road. 12, It was some one's duty to give some sort of
home to his horse. 13. The judge said, " I will find out
whose horse that poor beast is, and will put a mark oppo-
site the name of that man. I will not leave him alone
(trankvila), but will show myself very severe."

LESSON XLV.

THE INDEFINITE TEMPORAL ADVERB.

212. The indefinite temporal adverb, related to the in-
definite pronoun iu, is iam, sometime, any time, ever, once
upon a time:

lam mi rakontos la aferon al vi, sometime I will tell you the affair.
Rego iam lo|;is tie, a king once {upon a time) dwelt there.
Cu vi iam faris proceson kontrau li? Did you ever go to law against
him?

§§213-214] LESSON XLv. 161

THE INDEFINITE ADVERB lAL.

213. The indefinite adverb of motive or reason, related
to the indefinite pronoun iu, is ial, for any reason, for some
reason, for certain reaso,ns:

Ial li ne riparis la tendon, for some reason he did not repair the tent.
Cu vi opinias ke ial li maljuste suferas? Do you think that for any
reason he is suffering unjustly?

CAUSATIVE VERBS.

214. The suffix -ig- is used to form verbs indicating the
causing, rendering or bringing about of that which is ex-
pressed in the root or formation to which it is attached.
Verbs containing the suffix -ig- are called causative verbs
and are always transitive (22).

a. Causative verbs from adjectival roots indicate that
the quality or condition expressed in the root is produced
in the object of the verb: *

dolfiigi, to sweeten, to assuage (from dolca, sweet).

moligi, to soften (from mola, soft).

plilongigi, to lengthen, to make longer (from pli longa, longer).

faciligi, to facilitate (from facila, easy).

beligi, to beautify (from bela, beautiful).

b. Causative verbs from verbal roots indicate that the
action expressed in the root is made to take place :

dormigi, to put to sleep (dormi, to sleep).

konigi, to make acquainted with (from, koni, to know).

mirigi, to astonish (from miri, to wonder).

mortigi, to kill (from, morti, to die).

c. Causative verbs may be formed from noun-roots,

* The meaning often resembles that of the predicate nominative (210), as:
Li faris la mondon goja, he ynade the world glad.
Li gojigis la mondon, he gladdened the world.

162 LESSON XLV. [§215

prepositions, adverbs, prefixes and suffixes whose meaning

permits :

amasigi, to amass, to heap up (from amaso, pile).
kunigi, to unite, to bring together (from kun, with).
forigi, to do away with (from for, away).
ebligi, to render possible (from -ebl-, i6i).

EMPHASIS BY MEANS OF JA.

215. Tiie emphatic form of the verb, expressed in En-
glish by " do, " did," as in " I do study," " I did find it,"
" Do tell me," and by adverbs such as " certainly," " in-
deed," etc., is expressed in Esperanto by placing the ad-
verb ja, indeed, before the verb:

Vi ja mirigas min ! You do astonish me!

Li ja estas justa jugisto, he is indeed an upright judge.

Li ja havis tiun rajton, he did have that right.

Vocabulary.

akompan-i, to accompany. indiferent-a, indifferent.*

danger-o, danger. ja, indeed (215).

gvid-i, to guide. kred-i, to believe.

ial, for some reason (213). salt-i, to leap, to jump.

iam, sometimes (212). tir-i, to draw, to pull.

Ce la malnova ponto.

Iam logis en nia urbeto junulo kiu havis afablan pli
junan fratinon. Unu tagon en la dauro de la bela prin-
tempa vetero la junulo invitis la fratinon veturi ien
en veturilo tirata de du 6evaloj. La invito gojigis

* Cf. the difference in meaning and use between esti indiferenta, to be indif-
ferent, and ne esti zorga, not to be careful, botli of whicli may be translated " not
to care for":

Li estas indiferenta al la libro, he does not care about (is indifferent to) the book.
Li ne zorgas pri la libro, he does not care for (take care of) the hook.
Estas indiferente al mi £u li venos, au ne, / do not care whether he is coining or not.

§215] LESSON XLV. 163

la knabinon, kaj si respondis ke §i kun plezuro akompanos 5
la fraton. Tuj si pretigis sin por iri, kaj ili ekveturis.
Hi pasis preter pitoreskaj kampoj kaj arbaretoj, kaj fine
alvenis al ponto trans la rivero. Ili kredis gin malnova
kaj ne tre forta, kaj ial la junulino estis treege timigita
(frightened). " Ho, kara frato," si ekkriis, kun eksaltetoio
pro timo, " tiu ponto ja estas dangera! Mi deziras marsi
trans gin, fiar iam la pezeco de unu persono estos tiom tro
multe por veturilo sur malforta ponto!" Sed la timemaj
petoj de lia fratino §ajne kolerigis la junulon, kaj li re-
spondis malafable, " Nu, vi ja mirigas min! Vi montras vin 15
tre malsaga, fiar la konstruintoj de tiu ponto certs faris gin
sufi6e forta por tia veturilo kia la nia. Ne estos necese
eksalti de gi, kaj piede transiri la ponton." Tiamaniere li
penis trankviligi la kompatindan knabinon, sed tiaj vortoj
nur silentigis sin, kaj si komencis mallattte ploreti. Ta-2o
men la frato montris sin indiferenta al siaj timemaj sentoj,
kaj tute malatentis siajn larmojn. Li gvidis la 6evalojn
rekte trans la ponton, dum la fratino atendis la bruegon de
rompigita ligno, kaj imagis ke si estas tuj mortigota.
Tamen, la ponto estis tiel forta kiel la junulo estis klari-ss
ginta, kaj tute ne estis dangera. Sed pro la malafableco
de la frato al la fratino, ili tute ne agrable pasigis la
ceterajn horojn de la posttagmezo, malgrati la beleco de la
vetero kaj de la kamparo.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Somewhere in that same town, there lived another
youth, who also had an amiable sister. 2. One conven-
ient day, she accompanied him for a ride in a vehicle
drawn by a fast horse. 3. When they reached (alvenis al)
the bridge, this girl also was frightened for some reason,
the same as the girl in the other story. 4. She said " I do

164: LESSON XLVI. [§§216-217

not intend to complain, but the carriage will certainly be
too heavy while we are in it. I am-afraid that that bridge
is dangerous, so I will j ump out and walk. I will also pick
(kolektos) some sort of flowers, among the flowers growing
there, near where someone's horses are grazing. I will
not delay (atendigi) you long." He replied, "That bridge
is entirely safe (nedangera) but instead of explaining
(making-clear) to you about it, I will lead the horse across
the bridge, while you walk across, for I am not indifferent
to your fear." Then he helped his sister get out (eliri)
of the carriage, and guided the horse across. Then he
said with a pleasant smile, " It was not necessary to cross
on foot." She replied, " No, but you showed yourself a
courteous brother, and were very patient." Then they
rode on (antauen), and talked to each other very amiably.

LESSON XLVI.

THE INDEFINITE ADVERB lEL.
2i6. The indefinite adverb of manner, related to the in-
definite pronoun iu, is iel, somehow, in any way, in some
(any) 7nanner:

Mi penis vin iel gvidi tien, / tried somehow to guide you thither.

Iel ni anoncos la decidon, we shall announce the decision in some way.

THE INDEFINITE ADVERB lOM.

217. The indefinite adverb of quantity, related to the
indefinite pronoun iu, is iom, some, any quantity, a certain
amount:

Cu vi havas iom da tempo? Have you some timef

§i varmigos iom da akvo, she will heat some water.

Tiu metodo estas iomete dan^era, that way is a little dangerous (198).

La snuro estas iom tro longa, the string is somewhat too long.

§§218-219] LESSON XLvi. 165

THE SUFFIX -AD-.

2i8. The suffix -ad- is used to form words indicating
that the action expressed in the root is continuous, habit-
ual or repeated.

a. Verbs formed with the suffix -ad- are called frequenta-
tive verbs, and may often be translated by the root mean-
ing, preceded by " keep (on)," " used to," etc.:

frapadi, to keep knocking, to knock repeatedly.
rigardadi, to keep on looking, to gaze.
vizitadi, to keep visiting, visit repeatedly, frequent, haunt.
Antau du jaroj si tre dolce kantadis, two years ago she used to sing
very sweetly.

b. Nouns formed with the suffix -ad- are often equiva-
lent to English verbal nouns ending in -ing, and (with the
generic article, 201) may replace the infinitive as subject
(130) and sometimes as object (2Q) :

kriado, crying, shouting (krio, cry, shout).
movado, motion, movement in general (movo, a inovemenf).
pafado, shooting, fusillade (pafo, a shot).
parolado, a speech, address (parolo, a word spoken).
pensado, thought, contemplation (penso, a thought).
La promenado donas plezuron, the taking of walks gives pleasure.
Mi preferas la legadon de tiaj libroj, / prefer the reading of (to read)
such books.

THE USE OF MEM.

219. The invariable pronoun mem, self, selves, is in-
tensive, and lays stress upon the substantive which im-
mediately precedes it, or which it obviously modifies.
(The combination of mem with personal pronouns must
not be confused with reflexive pronouns, 39, 40) :

Mi mem akompanos vin, I myself shall accompany you.

La gvidisto mem perdis la vojon, the guide himself lost the way.

166 LESSON XLVI. [§219

Mi kredos al la viro mem, I shall give credence to the man himself.
La viroj mem defeadis sin, the men themselves defended themselves.
6i pendas sur la muro mem, it hangs on the very wall (the wall itself).
§i venis mem por vidi vin, she came herself to see you.
Mi ekvidis la Steliston mem, I caught a glimpse of the thief himself.

Vocabulary.

Arfiimed-o, Archimedes. ]et-i, to throw, to cast.

ban-i, to bathe (trans.). kompren-i, to understand.

fals-i, to debase, to forge. kron-o, crown.

Hieron-o, Hiero. lev-i, to lift, to raise.

honest-a, honest. lok-o, place.

ide-o, idea. mem, self, selves (219).

iel, somehow (216). or-o, gold.

iom, some (217). Sikeli-o, Sicily.

ARfilMEDO KAJ LA KRONOJ.

lam bonekonata rego, nomita Hierono, vivadis en
granda urbo en Sikelio, kiu estas sudokcidenta de Italujo.
Li suspektis ke iam la kronfaristoj , kiuj fabrikadis kronojn
por li, ne uzis ciom de la oro donita al ill de la rego, sad

sfalsadis gin per la uzado de iu alia materialo. Tamen, Hie-
rono ne povis per si mem eltrovi cu oni falsadas la oron.
Tial li venigis grekan klerulon, kies nomo estis Arfiimedo,
kaj rakontis al li sian timon pri la falsita oro. Arfiimedo
certigis lin ke iel li ja eltrovos pri la falsado, kaj helpos la

loregon kontraii la falsintoj, kiuj estis tiel indiferentaj al la
honesteco. Ciutage li multe pensadis pri la afero, sed ju pli
longe li pensadis, des malpli sukcesaj estis liaj penoj, gis iu
tago, kiam li okaze faris interesan eltrovon. Li estis jus
baninta sin, kaj subite ekrimarkis ke dum li mem restis en

15 la akvo, ial §ajnis esti iomete pli multe da akvo en la
banujo ol antaiie. Tuj li komprenis ke lia korpo estas
forpusinta iom de la akvo el gia loko. Li komprenis ke

§219] LESSON XLVI. 167

tiom da akvo estas elpusita, kiom antaiie estis en tiu loko
kie li mem estas. Tia levado de la akvo per lia korpo
donis al li sagan ideon, kaj li prenis en la mano du aii tri 20
orajn kronojn. Li jetis ilin unu post la alia en la banujon,
kaj zorge rimarkis al kiu alteco 6iu el ili levis la akvon.
Tiam li eltiris ilin, kaj enmetis la kronen pri kiu Hierono
estis plej suspektema. Li rimarkis ke ci tiu ne tiel alten
levis la akvon, tial li estis certa ke la oro en gi estas multe 25
falsita. Oni diras ke kiam li eltrovis 6i tiun metodon por
montri la falsadon de la malhonestaj kronfaristoj, li ek-
saltetis pro gojo kaj ekkriis "eureka," kiu estas la greka
vorto por " mi estas trovinta." Tiun saman vorton oni
ankoraii nun uzadas en la angla lingvo. 30

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

L Several centuries ago, a rich and powerful (mzdtepova)
king, named Hiero, lived in Sicily. 2. Sometimes he was
suspicious about the crown-makers who wrought (faris)
crowns for him, out of the gold which he himself gave them.
3. He wondered whether these men were honest. 4. He
suspected that perhaps (eble) they did not use all of the
gold which was given them, but kept some of it for them-
selves. 5. He could not of himself (per si mem) discover
whether they were debasing the gold in his crowns, so he
summoned a wise man from (el) Greece. 6. To this well-
informed man, whose name was Archimedes, he made
clear his fears. 7. Archimedes assured the king that he
would find out somehow about the matter. 8. He medi-
tated several hours every da}^, and tried to discover a
satisfactory (kontentiga) method, but for some reason he
did not succeed. 9. One day, however, when he was
bathing (himself), he noticed that there seemed to be a
little more- water in the bathtub when he himself was in it.

168 LESSON XLvii. [§§220-222

than before. 10. The rising of the water gave him an idea.
11. He threw the crowns one after another into the water,
and noticed how much water each displaced. 12. In this
manner (tiamaniere) he understood how much each had
been alloyed by the local (lokaj) crown-makers, whom
Hiero soon threw into prison (la malUherejon).

LESSON XLVII.

THE NEGATIVE PRONOUN.

220. The negative pronoun (and pronominal adjective)
is neniu, no one, nobody, no (formed of ne and iu, with a
medial n inserted for the sake of euphony) :

Neniu el vi komprenas min, no one of you understands me.
Mi trovis neniun preta por iri, / found nobody ready to go.
Li havis neniun honestaa serviston, he had no honest servant.

221. The negative pronoun neniu has a possessive or
genitive form, nenies, nobody's, no one's:

Cies afero estas nenies afero, everybody's affair is nobody's affair.
Li laiidos nenies ideojn, he will praise no one's ideas.

THE ADVERBIAL PARTICIPLE.

222. A participle may be equivalent not only to a clause
describing or determining the substantive modified, as in
la parolanta viro, the man who-is-talking , la sendota knabo,
the boy who-will-be-sent, but also to an adverbial clause.*
Such a participle has for its subject the subject of the verb
in the sentence (though not in attributive or predicate
relation with it), and indicates some relation of time,
cause, manner, situation, etc., between the action of the

* An adverbial clause modifies a verb, as in dum vi atendis, li foriris, whiU you
v^aited, he went away; car mi gojis, mi ridis. because I was happy, I laughed.

§223] LESSON XLVII. 169

participle and that of the main verb in the sentence. An
adverbial participle is given the ending -e : *

6ojante, mi ridis, rejoicing, I laughed.

Forironte, ni adiauis lin, being about to depart, we bade him farewell.

Baninte la infaneton, si dormigis gin, after bathing {having bathed) the

baby, she put it to sleep.
Estante ruzaj, ili falsis la oron, being sly, they debased the gold.
Tiel helpate de vi, mi sukcesos, thus helped by you, I shall succeed.
Silentigite de li, ili ne plendis, (having been) silenced by him, they did

not complain.
Punote, li ekkriis, being about to be punished, he gave a cry.
Ne parolinte, li foriris, without speaking {not having spoken), he left.
I/i venis, ne vokite, he came without being (came not-having-been) called.

THE PREFIX RE-.

223. The prefix re- indicates the repetition of an action
or state, or the return of a person or thing to its original
place or state. (C/. Enghsh prefix re-, meaning either
" again " or " back.")

rekapti, to recapture. rebrili, to shine back, to reflect.

renovigi, to renew. reteni, to hold back, to retain.

rekoni, to recognize. reveni, to come back, to return.

gis la revido, au revoir. reiri, to go back, to return.

ree, again, anew. rejeti, to throw back, to reject.

Vocabulary.

brul-i, to be in flames, to hum. flzik-o, physics.

cilindr-o, cylinder. insul-o, island.

detru-i, to destroy. masin-o, machine.

fam-a, famous. nenies, nobody's (221).

filozof-o, philosopher. neniu, no one (220).

* The adverbial participle must not be used in rendering the English '* nom-
inative absolute " construction of a participial clause referring to something elsb
than the subject. In such a sentence a clause must be used: The youth being
young, everyone watched him, car la junulo estis juna, ciu rigardadis lin; the work
being finished, he went away, kiam la laboro estis finita, li foriris.

170 LESSON XLVII. [§223

problem-o, problem. spegul-o, mirror.

Sirakuz-o, Syracuse. §raub-o, screw.

LA FILOZOFO ARfilMEDO.

Eble neniu greka klerulo estis pli fama ol la filozofo
Arhimedo. Longe studadinte la problemojn de la geo-
metrio kaj de la fiziko, li faris multe da eltrovoj. Li tiel
multe komprenis pri la uzado de la levilo (lever) ke oni
srakontas la sekvantan rakonteton pri li: Li diris al la
rego Hierono " Kiam oni donos al mi lokon sur kiu mi
povos stari, mi mem ekmovos la mondon per mia levilo!"
Zorge ekzameninte la ecojn (202) de la Sraiibo kaj de
la cilindro, li elpensis di versa] n malinojn en kiuj srati-

loboj kaj cilindroj estas iamaniere kunigitaj. Uzante unu
el tiuj maMnoj, oni povis facile pusi al la akvo la sipojn
(necese konstruitajn sur la tero), kiujn antaiie la viroj
mem enpusis en la akvon, kun multe da laboro, aii tiris
tien per fievaloj. Uzante alian maMnon elpensitan de tiu

15 greko, oni povis levi akvon de unu loko al alia. Ankoraii
nun oni nomas tian masinon la " §raiibo de Arhimedo."
En la datiro de granda militado kontraQ la urbo Sirakuzo,
sur la insulo Sikelio, Arfiimedo elpensis diversajn masinojn
por helpi la Sirakuzanojn. Vidinte ke la sunlumo re-

sobrilas de spegulo, li faris el speguloj maMnon per kiu li
ekbruligis (set on fire) la sipojn de la malamikoj. Ci tiuj,
ne komprenante kiamaniere * la sipoj ekbrulis, estis multe
timigitaj. Sed ec helpite de Arfiimedo la Sirakuzanoj ne
venkis. Post iom da tempo, la malamikoj kaptis kaj tute

25 detruis la urbon Sirakuzon. Nenies domo restis netuMta,
kaj centoj da personoj estis mortigataj. Oni ne scias per

* The use of kiamaniere, in what Tnanner, how, is preferable to that of kiel
in indirect questions (p. 38, ftn.), as tlie latter might be confused with the use of
Mel, meaning " as " (156).

§223] LESSON XLVII. 171

kia morto Arfiimedo mortis, sed eble la malamikoj, iel
rekoninte la elpensinton de la spegulmasino, jetis lin en la
maron au alimaniere lin mortigis.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. The Greek philosopher Archimedes was not only
famous long ago, among his contemporaries (167, b, 132),
but even today his name is well known everywhere.
2. No one's knowledge about the problems of geometry
and physics was greater. 3. No one understood better
the properties of the cylinder and the screw. 4. Having
studied these properties a long time, and having meditated
a great deal about them, he understood them a little (217)
better than any one else {iu alia). 5. The story about the
debasing of the gold crowns has already been told. 6.
There is another anecdote, namely (nome), that he re-
marked to Hiero, king of Syracuse, that with a lever he
would move the world, as soon as he had a place on which
he himself could stand. 7. Having discovered how (kia-
maniere) the sunlight is reflected by a mirror, and heats
the wood upon which it shines, he invented a machine
made out of mirrors. 8. Aided by this machine, .the
Syracusans Avere able to set on fire the wooden ships of the
enemy. 9. The enemy, however, were not repulsed from
the island, but at once rebuilt and repaired their ships,
and sent them back to attack the city again. 10. Finally,
having captured the city, they destroyed it, and killed a
large number of the inhabitants (logantoj), also Archi-
medes himself.

172 LESSON XLViii. [§§224-227

LESSON XLVIII.

THE NEGATIVE ADJECTIVE.

224. Th3 negative adjective, related to the negative
pronoun neniu, is nenia, no kind of, no sort of, expressing a
negative idea concerning the quality of a person or thing:

Mi havas nenian spegulou, I have no sort of mirror.
Nenia problemo estas tro malfacila por li, no sort of problem is too
difficult for him.

THE NEGATIVE ADVERB OF PLACE.

225. The negative adverb of place is nenie, nowhere.
The ending -n may be added, as to other adverbs (121),
to indicate direction:

Nenie estas pli bona masino, nowhere is there a better machine.
Mi iros nenien morgau, / shall go nowhere tomorrow.

THE NEGATIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB.

226. The negative adverb of time is neniam, never, at no
time:

Neniam vivis pli fama filozofo, there never lived a more famous philos-
opher.

Vi neniam trovos tiajn sraiibojn au cilindrojn, you will never find that
kind of screws or cylinders.

THE SUFFIX -AJ-.

227. The suffix -aj- is used to form concrete words. It is
thus in contrast to the abstract-forming suffix -ec- (202).

a. A word formed from a verbal root by means of the
suffix -aJ- expresses a concrete example of a thing which

§228] LESSON XLVIII. 173

undergoes (or, in the case of intransitives, results from) the
action indicated in the root:

konstruajo, a building. kreskajo, a plant, a growth.

sendajo, consignment, thing sent. rebrilajo, a reflection.
mangajo, food. restajo, remainder.

b. A word formed from an adjectival root or formation
by means of the suffix -aj- indicates a thing characterized
by or possessing the quality expressed in tlie root or forma-
tion to which it is attached :

belajo, a thing of beauty. mirindajo, a marvel.

maljustajo, an injustice. okazintajo, an occurrence.

c. A word formed from a noun-root by means of the
suffix -a J- indicates a thing made or derived from tliat which
is expressed in the root:

sukerajo, a sweet, confection. orajo, a gold ob]ect.

ovajo, an omelet. araneajo, a spider-web.

THE ADVERB JEN.

228. The adverb jen, behold, here, there, is used to point
out or call attention to something:

Jen estas la problemo ! There is the problem !

Jen la filozof o ! Behold the philosopher !

Jen si ludas, jen si studas, now she plays, now she studies.

Mi faris gin jene, / did it as follows.

Mi agis lau la jena metodo, / acted in the following way.

Li diris la jenaju vortojn, he spoke the following words.

VOCABULAKY.

arang-i, to arrange. jen, there, behold (228).

art-o, art. konkurs-o, competition.

ber-o, berry. lert-a, skilled, clever.

jaluz-a, jealous. nenia, no kind of (224).

174 LESSON XLVIII. [§228

neniam, never (226). precip-a, principal, chief,

nenie, nowhere (225). regul-o, rule.

pentr-i, to paint. tromp-i, to deceive.

postul-i, to demand. vin-o, wine.

DU ARTKONKURSOJ.

Vivadis en Grekujo antau multaj jarcentoj du lertaj
famaj pentristoj. Hi estis reciproke jaluzaj, kaj neniam
povis interparoli paceme. Ne povinte decidi la problemon,
kaj eltrovi kiu el ili estas la plej lerta, ili fine arangis kon-
5 kurson pri la pentrado. Laii giaj reguloj, 6iu el ili pentris
pentrajon, por montri sian lertecon. Unu pentris teleron
da vinberoj (grapes). Gi estis tiel mirinde kolorigita ke
e6 la birdoj venis kaj penis gin mangi, pensinte gin ne nur
pentrajo, sed la vinberoj mem. " Nenia pentrajo povos

losuperi la mian," gojege ekkriis la pentristo, " jen, la
birdoj mem rekonas mian lertecon!" Tiam li diris al la
alia artiste, "Nu, kial vi ne fortiras tiun kurtenon? Mi
volas rigardi vian pentrajon." I^a dua pentristo respondis
kun rideto, "Jen estas mia pentrajo. Nenie apud vi estas

15 kurteno, sed vi vidas nur pentrajon de kurteno antau tiu
konstruajo." Tre mirigite, la pentrinto de la vinberoj
diris " Vi ja superas min en la pentrado. Mi trompis la
birdojn per mia pentrajo, sed vi trompas ec aliajn artis-
tojn! Tia lerteco estas ja mirindajo!"

20 Oni rakontas similan okazintajon pri fama artisto kiu
pentris multe da pentrajoj por Aleksandro Granda. Mal-
gajninte en konkurso kontraii iuj aliaj artisto j, li opiniis
ke la jugintoj estas maljustaj al li, precipe pro la jaluzeco.
Li ekkriis " Car niaj pentrajoj estas bildoj de cevaloj, ili

25certe postulas 6evalajn jugantojn!" Tial oni enkondukis
du au tri cevalojn. La cevaloj, tute ne rigardinte la pen-
trajojn de la .aliaj artistoj, kuris rekte al tiu de la plen-

§228] LESSON XLVIII. 175

dinta artisto, kaj klare montris sian rekonadon de la tie
pentritaj cevaloj. Surprizite, oni diris " Jen estas justaj
ju^antoj!" Tuj oni laMis la pentriston kaj severe puniss
la malhonestajn homajn jugintojn.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Syracuse was the largest city on the island of Sicily.

2. The famous philosopher and physicist Archimedes lost
his life when that city was destroyed and entirely burned.

3. At least, no sort of trace of him seems to have been
found after that occurrence. 4. Never, perhaps, was there
a more learned man in Sj^racuse. 5. Greece was also fa-
mous for its skilled painters, and there are many anecdotes
about them. 6. A painter who failed in a certain compe-
tition believed that none of the judges had been just to
him. 7. He exclaimed " Behold this iniquity (injustice) !
Nowhere can I find a human being who is not jealous.
8. Since the paintings are chiefly of horses, do they not
require horses for judges?" 9. His proposal was accepted
(54), and some horses were led in. 10. Without noticing
(222) the other paintings, the horses walked at once to the '
picture of the unsuccessful artist, and showed immediate
recognition of the horses painted there. 11. This act
showed which competitor (konkursinto) was the most
sldlful. 12. The painter, having deceived the horses, as
another artist had once deceived birds by a picture of
grapes, said " Animals decide not by rules, but by feel-
ings."

176 LESSON XLix. [§§229-232

LESSON XLIX.

THE NEGATIVE ADVERBS NENIAL, NENIEL, NENIOM.

229. The negative adverb of motive or reason, related to
the negative pronoun neniu, is nenial, for no reason:

Li estas nenial jaluza, he is jealous for no reason.
Nenial li trompis vin, for no reason he deceived you.

230. The negative adverb of manner is neniel, in no way.

Mi povos neniel arangi konkurson, / can in no way arrange a compe-
tition.
Tiu ago estas neniel laflregula, That ad is in no way regular.

231. The negative adverb of quantity is neniom, no
amount of, not any, none, no:

Tiu pentrajo postulas neniom da lerteco, such a painting requires no

skill.
Estas neniom da vino en lia glaso, there is no wine in his glass.

THE SUFFIX -I6-.

232. The suffix -ig;- is used to form intransitive verbs of
an inchoative nature.

a. Inchoative verbs from the roots of intransitive verbs
indicate the beginning or coming into existence of the act Or
condition expressed in the root :

sidi|;i, to become sitting, to sit down, to take a seat.
starigi, to become standing, to stand up.

b. Intransitive verbs may be similarly formed from the
roots of transitive verbs, and indicate an action of the verb
not immediately due to the subject's acting upon itself (as

§232] LESSON XLIX. 177

in the case of reflexive verbs, 41) and not caused by any
direct agency (as in the case of the passive voice, 169) :•*

La pordo fermigas, the door closes (goes shut).

La veturilo movigas, the vehicle moves.

La branco rompif as, the branch hreahs.

Grupo da personoj kolektigis, a group of persons gathered.

c. Intransitive verbs may similarly be formed from
adjectival roots, and indicate the acquiring of the charac-
teristic or quality expressed in the root:

laci^i, to become tired, to get tired.
varmigi, to become warm, to get warm,.
maljunigi, to become old, to age.

d. Verbs may similarly be formed from noun-roots,
adverbs, prepositions, prefixes and suffixes whose meaning
permits:

amikigi, to become a friend. kunigi, to become joined.

forig;i, to go away, to disappear. ebligi, to become possible.

VoCABULAKY.

apenaii, hardly, scarcely. nenial, for no reason (229).

atmosfer-o, atmosphere. neniel, in no way (230).

dub-i, to doubt. neniom, none, no (231).

efektiv-a, effective, real. ombr-o, shadow.

hel-a, char, bright. pejzag;-o, landscape.

horizont-o, horizon. radi-o, ray.

krepusk-o, twilight. tropik-a, tropical.

* Cf. the examples given and the following sentences in which the same verbal
roots are used in the simple form and in the passive voice:

( Ni fermas la rordon, we close the door.

t La T-ordo estas fermita, the door is (has been) closed.

i Oni movas la veturilon, /hey move the vehicle.

\ La veturilo estas movata, the vehicle is being moved.

( Mi rom-as la brancon, / brexitc the branch.

1 La branco estas rom^ita, the branch is (has been) broken.

j Li kolektis florojn, he gathered flowers.

1 Floroj estas kolektitaj, flowers have been gathered.

178 LESSON XLix. [§232

LA KREPUSKO.

Estas tre agrable sidigi sur la herbon, kaj rigardi la
plilongigantajn ombrojn, en la daiiro de bela somera ves-
pero. La suno grade mallevigas post la montetoj, la
nuboj farigas (become) bele kolorigitaj, kaj la tuta pejzago
spli kaj pli beligas. Malrapide la krepusko anstatauas la
helan sunlumon, kaj fine cie noktigas. La krepusko estas
la rebrilado de la sunlumo tra la atmosfero, post la mal-
levigo de la suno mem, lau la jena maniero: la radioj
suprenbriladas, en la aeron super niaj kapoj, en la okci-
10 denta parto de la cielo. De tie ill rebriladas tiamaniere ke
la 6ielo lumigas. Kiam estas iom da nuboj sur la cielo
okcidenta, la sunradioj briladas rekte kontratt ilin, belege
kolorigante tiujn nubojn. En tropikaj landoj la krepus-
kigo okazas tre rapide. Gi ne nur komencigas subite, sed
15 ankau dauras tre mallongan tempon. La nokti^o preskau
tuj sekvas la taglumon, kun rimarkinda subiteco. Apenaii
komencigas la krepusko, kiam la subiranta suno sajnas
fall preter la horizonto. Tute male (quite on the contrary),
en landoj treege nordaj, krepuski^as tre frue en la tago,
20 kaj la krepusko dauras longan tempon antati. ol la nokto
venas. Efektive (really), en tiuj landoj la krepusko tute
anstatauas la nokton, dum ses monatoj de la jaro. Tie oni
havas krepuskon dum la unua duonjaro, kaj la taglumon
dum la sekvinta duonjaro. Krepusko daiiranta tiom da
25 tempo estas tiel rimarkinda kiel tago de tia sama lon-
geco. Mi dubas 6u tia dividado de la tempo inter tago
kaj malhela nokto estas agrabla, sed oni povas neniel
malhelpi ^in. Ciu tre norda lando havas la saman tra-
vivajon (experience), fiiujare, kaj efektive oni apenaii ri-
se markas gin. Pri 6iu plendanto oni nur diras " Li estas
nenial malkontenta."

§232] LESSON XLIX. 179

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Nowhere have I read a more amusing story than that
of (pri) the two painters who, being mutually (i8o) jealous,
arranged a competition. 2. One painted a cluster (126)
of grapes, so excellently that the birds flew to it. 3. The
other deceived his rival (competitor) himself, by a painting
' of a curtain. 4. The most famous artists, however, often
show their skill by painting (222) pictures of the sunset,
chiefly, I think, because of the brilliant colors. 5. In fact
(efektive), I doubt whether there is a more beautiful sight
(227, b) than the sunset. 6. It is made by the bright rays
of the sun, which shine back through the atmosphere, long
after the sun itself has passed below the horizon. 7. The
more moisture (malsekap) there is in the air, the more
brilliant the colors are, and the more beautiful the entire
landscape becomes. 8. In tropical lands, night falls very
suddenly, and there is almost no sort of twilight. 9. In
fact, a twilight scarcely occurs there. 10. In the lands far
north, on the contrary, the twilight lasts six months, and
the remainder of the year is the day. .11. To dwell in such
a land is surely a remarkable experience. 12. It can in no
way be understood by persons who have never lived there.
13. Such things increase (make greater) my desire to visit
those northern lands. 14. For no reason, however, do I
wish to reside in the tropical countries.

180 LESSON L. [§§233-235

LESSON L.

THE PRONOUNS ENDING IN -0.

233. In contrast to the pronouns ending in -u (tiu, kiu,
ciu, iu, neniu), a similar series ending in -0 refers to an
object, fact or action not definitely specified (but never
to a person), like English what, anything, something,
nothing, etc. Because of their somewhat vague meaning,
these pronouns do not occur in the plural, nor are they ever
used as pronominal adjectives:

Demonstrative: tio, that {thing, fact or action).

ci tio, this {thing, fact or action).
Interrogative and Relative: kio, what.
Distributive: £io, everything.
cio £i, all this.
Indefinite: io, anything, something.
Negative: nenio, nothing.

234. A pronoun (not personal) in predicate or relative
relation to a pronoun ending in -o must itself be of the same
series:

Kio estas 6i tio, kion vi diras? What is this, which you sayf
§i vidis tion, kio Jus okazis, slie saw that which just occurred.
Cio ti, kion vi vidas, estas farita de ili, everything here {all this), which

you see, was done hy them.
Li Iiavas ion por vi, sed nenion por mi, he has something for you, but

nothing for me.

CORRELATIVE WORDS.

235. Pronouns, adjectives and adverbs, which are re-
lated to each other as corresponding demonstratives, inter-
rogatives, relatives, etc., are called correlatives. In Es-

§236]

LESSON L.

181

peranto the correlative system is more complete than in
any other language, and may be summarized as fol-
lows:

Demonstra-
tive

Interroga-
tive and
Relative

Distributive

Indefinite

Negative

tic (233)
that (thing)

kio (233)
what, which

Mo (233)
everything

io (233)
anything

aenio (233)
nothing

tiu (56)
that (one)

kiu (146)
who, which

ciu (173)
every, each

iu (203)
any (one)

neniu (220)
no (one)

ties (62)
that one's

ries (147)
whose

cies (174)
every one's

ies (204)
any one's

ia (208)
any kind

nenies (221)
no one's

tia (65)
that kind of

kia (150)
what kind of

cia (177)
every kind

nenia (224)
nxi kind of

tie (68)
there

kie (151)
where

tie (182)
everywhere

ie (209)

anywhere

nenie (22s)
nowhere

tiam (73)
then

kiam (155)
when

ciam (187)
always

iam (212)
any time

neniam (226)
never

tial (78)
therefore,
so

kial (129)
wherefore,
whj

cial (188)
for every
reason

iai (213)
for any
reason

nenial (229)
for no
reason

tiel(88),(is6)
thus, so

kiel (156)
how, as

eiel (193)

every way

iel (216)
any way

neniel (230)
in no way

tiom (104)
that much,
so much

kiom (164)
how much,
as

ciom (194)
all,
the whole of

iom (217)
some,
any amount

neniom (231)
non£,
no quantity

THE USE OF AJN.

236. The word ajn maj^ be placed after any interroga-
tive-relative or indefinite correlative word, to give a gener-
alizing sense. In order to avoid confusion with the accu-

182

LESSON L.

[§237

sative plural ending, ajn is never attached to the correlative
which it follows:

kio ajn, whatever.
kies ajn, whosesoever,
kie ajn, wherever.

kiam ajn, whenever,
kiom ajn, however much.
ia ajn, any kind whatever.

THE SUFFIX -ING-.

237. The suffix -ing- is used to form words indicating
that which holds one specimen of what is expressed in the
root:

glavingo, scabbard.
lumingo, torch-holder.

plumingo, pen-holder.
ingo, sheath, case, socket.

VOCABULAKY.

£io, everything (233).

Gordio, Gordius.

io, anything (233).

jug-o, yoke.

klin-i, to bend, to incline (trans.).

kio, what (233).

lig-i, to tie, to bind.

nenio, nothing (233).

ofer-o, offering.

reg-i, to rule, to govern,

sankt-a, sacred, holy.

templ-o, temple.

tio, that (thing) (233).

util-a, useful.

LA GORDIA LIGAJO.

Unufoje en antikva tempo la regatoj de iu regolando en
Azio ne havis regon. Ne sciante kion fari, ili demandis de
la dioj. La dioj respondis, " Kiu ajn venos unue en nian
sanktan templon hodiau, por fari oferojn, estos via rego."

BOkaze kamparano nomita Gordio venis al la templo, jus
post la tagigo. La regatoj tuj rekonis la estontan region,
kvankam li veturis sur peza malbela veturilo. Salutinte
la surprizitan kamparanon, oni nomis lin rego. Decidinte
fari dankoferon al la dioj, Gordio metis en la templon la

loveturilon mem sur kiu li tien veturis, antafi ol li komencis

§237] LESSON L. 183

regi kiel la nova rego. La jugo estis alligita (tied fast) per
granda ligajo el snurego. Post la morto de Gordio oni
grade komencis kredi ion tre interesan pri tio. Oni diris
ke tin, kiu povos iel ajn malligi tiun ligajon, farigos re-
ganto super 6iuj regoj de Azio. 15

Post kelkaj jaroj Aleksandro Granda decidis fari
grandan militadon kontraii Azio, kaj alproksimigis al la
lando kie estis reginta Gordio. Kiam li demandis, " Kio
estas ci tie la plej interesa vidindajo?" oni rakontis al li
tion, kion oni diras pri la snurega ligajo sur la veturilo de 20
Gordio. Kompreneble (of course) Aleksandro deziris fari
ion ajn utilan por venki Azion, tial li tuj venigis gvidiston
por konduki lin al la templo. Alveninte tien, li zorge
rigardadis la ligajon, kaj ekzamenis la snuregon el kiu gi
estis farita. Tiam, elpreninte sian glavon el la glavingo, S5
subite klinigante li rekte tratrancis la tutan , ligajon.
" Nenio estas pli faeila ol tio," li diris, " kaj nun mi ne
dubas cu mi certe regos super ciuj regoj de Azio." Pro
tio, kion faris Aleksandro Granda, oni ankoraii nuntempe
diras, kiam iu ajn superas malfacilajon per kia ajn subitaao
metodo, "Li tran&s la gordian ligajon."

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. One often hears the remark "I will cut the Gordian
knot." 2. There is an interesting story about this. 3.
A wagon whose yoke was tied to the pole by a large knot
had been put in the middle of the temple. 4. It was a
thank-offering to the sacred gods, by whose help Gordius
had in olden time become king. 5. It was said that who-
ever would be able to untie that rope would no doubt be-
come ruler over the whole of Asia. 6. Alexander the Great,
having begun a campaign against Asia, approached the
city where this temple was. 7. Having heard the story.

18i LESSON LI. [§238

he at once had a guide come, and went thither, guided by
him. 8. He desired to do everything which was useful to
the conquering of Asia. 9. Having examined the knot
carefully, he bent over and tried for a few minutes to untie
it. 10. Then he chose another method. 11. He seized his
sword, and suddenly cut through the whole knot. 12.
Having done this, he put the sword back into the scabbard.
13. This he did, instead of continuing (daurigi) his efforts
to untie the knot. 14. In fact, having no patience, he had
become tired. 15. Perhaps the conquering of Asia did not
in any way become possible on account of this, but at least
the story is interesting, whatever actually (efektive) hap-
pened. 16. Nothing is impossible, whenever one tries
enough. 17. In a tropical country, such as part of Asia
is, the landscapes are beautiful. 18. A tropical twilight is
very short, however, and the shadows have scarcely be-
come long when the sun seems to sink suddenly below the
horizon, although the last bright rays continue to shine
back through the atmosphere for a few minutes.

LESSON LI.

THE PRONOUN AMBAU.

238. The pronoun (and pronominal adjective) ambaii,
both, indicates two persons or things considered together.
It is invariable in form: *

Hi ambau venis al la templo, they both came to the temple.
Ambau faris oferojn al la dioj, both made offerings to the gods.
Vidante kaj la plumon kaj la plumingon, mi prenis la ambau, seeing
both the pen and the penholder, I took both.

* This pronoun must not be confused with the use of kaj, translated both in
the combination kaj . . . kaj . . , b th . . . and . . (26).

§§239-240] LESSON li. 185

FORMATIONS WITH -IG- AND -I&-.

239. Some verbs may be used in the simple form, and
also with both the suffix -ig- and the suffix -ig-. Thus
from one verb-root three verbs of distinct meaning may be
made, and the formation with -ig-, being transitive, may
also be used in the passive:

sidi, to sit, to be sitting.

sidigi, to become sitting, to take a seat.

sidigi, to cause to sit, to seat.

esti sidigata, to be caused to sit.
silenti, to he silent.

silentigi, to become silent.

silpntigi, to cause to be silent, to silence.

esti silentigita, to be silenced.
kusi, to lie, to be lying.

kuSigi, to lie down, to go to bed.

kusigi, to cause to lie, to lay.

esti kusigita, to be laid.
stari, to stand, to be standing.

starigi, to rise, to stand up, to become erect.

starigi, to raise, to cause to stand up, to erect.

esti starigita, to be raised, to be erected.

FACTUAL CONDITIONS.

240. A conditional sentence consists of two parts, an
assumption and a conclusion. The assumption is a clause
(introduced usually by the conjunction se, if) which as-
sumes something as true or realized. The conclusion is a
statement whose truth or realization depends upon the
truth or realization of the assumption. Factual conditions
(conditions of fact) may deal with the present, past or
future time:

Se li vidas tion, li ploras, if he sees that, he weeps (is weeping).
Se li vidis tion, li ploris, if he saw that, he wept.

186 LESSON LI. ' [§240

Li ploros, se li vidos tion, he will weep, if he sees that.

Se li venis hieraii, li foriros morgau, if he came yesterday, he will go
away tomorrow.

Se li estas vidinta tion, li nun ploras, if he has seen that, he now is
weeping.

Se tio estas vidota, li estas punota, if that is going to be seen, he is go-
ing to be punished.

Se li estas kaptita, li estos jam punita, if he has been captured, he will
already have been punished.

Vocabulary.

ambau, both (238). mut-a, dumb, mute.

azen-o, ass, donkey. orel-o, ear.

ben-i, to bless. petol-a, mischievous.

dors-o, back. propr-a, own, one's own.

form-o, form. se, if.

halt-i, to stop (intrans.). spir-i, to breathe.

monafi-o, monk. turment-i, to torment.

LA MONAfiOJ KAJ LA AZENO.

lam du monafioj reiris tra la arbaro al la monanejo, dum
grade krepuskigis. Ambau portis pezajn sakojn da ter-
pomoj, kaj baldau lacigis, sed ne sciis kion fan. Okaze
ill ekvidis azenon ligitan al arbo, kaj unu monaho, haltinte,

5 diris petole al la alia " Se vi anstatauos la beston, mi havos
portanton por miaj propraj sakoj, kaj ankaix por la viaj."
Lia kunulo respondis " Nu, se la azeiio portos miajn
sakojn, mi mem goje restos en gia loko." Jus dirite, tuj
farite (no sooner said than done). Malliginte la ligajojn

10 kiuj tenis la azenon, ili jetis la sakojn trans la dorson de la
utila besto. Unu monafio tuj forkondukis la azenon, dum
ambati viroj laute ridis. Post tio, la dua monafio sin ligis
per la sama snurego kiu antatie tenis la azenon. Kiam
revenis la kamparano, kies azeno estis jus stelita, li ekhal-

istis, multe mirigite, vidante homon tie ligita. La monaho

^240] LESSON LI. 187

anoncis al li, " Car mi estis tro mangema, Dio faris azenon
el mi, antaii du jaroj. Mi jus rericevis mian propran for-
mon." Tuj la kredema kamparano invitis la petolan
monahon al sia hejmo. La monafio restis tiun nokton ce
la kamparano, kaj la sekvintan tagon li f oriris, beninte la 20
kamparanon, sed kase ridante pri la afero. Tiam la kam-
parano iris vendejon, por aceti alian azenon. Li ekvidis
sian propran azenon, kiun la unua monaho estis sendinta
tien, post sia reveno al la monahejo. La malsaga kam-
parano, kliniginte al la besto, diris " Ho, bona monalio, 25
mi vidas ke duan fojon vi jam estis tro mangema!" La
muta besto forte svingis la orelojn kaj skuis la kapon, pro
la varma elspirajo apud sia orelo. Tio Sajne estis re-
spondo al la jus diritaj vortoj, tial la malsaga kamparano
ree acetis sian propran azenon. Ciam poste li nek tur-30
mentis nek ec laborigis gin, kredante la azenon la sankta
monaho mem.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. If the subjects of any kingdom whatever did not
have a king, in ancient times, they usually asked the sacred
gods about it. 2. If the gods informed (sciigis) them that
whatever man would come to the temple first would be-
come their king, they immediately chose the first comer
(la unuan veninton) king. 3. Whoever was chosen king
made the blessed gods a thank-offering, which consisted of
something out of his own possessions (227, a). 4. Gordius
did not offer to the gods merely the yoke of his wagon, but
the whole wagon. 5. A knot of rope was tied between the
yoke and the pole. 6. People soon began to say, " If any
one soever can untie that knot, he will b'ecome ruler of
Asia." 7. If any other men tried to untie that rope, they
failed. 8 Alexander,- though (tamen), had scarcely ar-

188 LESSON LII. [§241

rived when he drew (out) his sword from the scabbard, and
cut the knot. 9. If you will take-a-seat, I will tell you
about the two mischievous monks, returning to the monas-
tery. 10. Both were breathing with difficulty, and stopped
to rest. 11. Having noticed a donkey near by, they untied
it. 12. One led the long-eared dumb animal away, while
the other tied himself in its own place. 13. The credulous
(192) peasant believed everything which was told (54)
him, even that the monk had formerly had the form of an
ass.

LESSON LII.

THE CONDITIONAL MOOD.

241. Tiiat indication of the speaker's frame of mind
which is given by the form of the verb is called the mood
of the verb. All verbs given so far have been in the indica-
tive mood, which represents an act or state as a reality or
fact, or in the infinitive mood, which expresses the verbal
idea in a general way, resembling that of a substantive.
The conditional mood does not indicate whether or not the
act or state mentioned is a fact, but merely expresses the
speaker's idea of its likelihood or certainty, or is used in an
assumption or conclusion dealing with suppositions, not
with actual facts. The ending of the conditional mood is
-us. The conjugation of vidi in the aoristic tense of the
conditional mood is as follows:

mi vidus, I should see.

vi vidus, you would see.

!i (§i, gi) vidus, hfi (she, it) would see.

ni vidus, we should see.

vi vidus, you would see.

ill vidus, they would see.

§§242-244] LESSON lii. 189

COMPOUND TENSES OF THE CONDITIONAL MOOD.

242. In addition to the aoristic tense, the conditional
mood has three active and three passive compound tenses,
formed by combining the participles with the aoristic tense
of esti in the conditional mood. A synopsis of vidi in
these compound tenses is as follows:

Active Voice.
Present: mi estus vidanta, / should be seeing.
Past : mi estus vidinta, / should have seen.
Future: mi estus vidonta, / should be about to see.

Passive Voice.
Present: mi estus vidata, I should be seen.
"Past: mi estus vidita, / should have been seen.
Future: mi estus vidota, / should be about to be seen.

LESS VIVID CONDITIONS.

243. A conditional sentence dealing with suppositions
concerning events in present or future time is called a less
vivid condition* and the conditional mood is used in both
the assumption and the conclusion :

Se li vidus tion, li plorus, if he should see that, he would weep.

Mi goje helpus vin, se mi povus, / would gladly help you, if I could.

Se vi metus ilin sur la dorson de la azeno, ^i portus ilin, if you should
put them on the donkey's back, it would carry them.

La petola junulo turmentus la mona&on, se li revenus, the mischie-
vous youth would torment the monk, if he should return.

Se li estus kaptata, li estus punata, if he should be caught, he would be

INDEPENDENT USE OF THE CONDITIONAL MOOD.
244. The conditional mood may be used in a conclusion
whose assumption is merely implied, serving thus to soften

* In contrast to factual conditions (240), which are vivid, because they deal
with facts.

190 LESSON LII. [§245

or make vague the statement or question in which it is
used:

Mi toje helpus vin, / would gladly help you.

Cu vi bonvole dirus al mi? Would you kindly tell me?

Kiu volus enspiri tian aeron? Who would wish to inhale such air?

Estus bone reteni vian propran, it would he well to keep your own.

La cielo vin benus pro tio, Heaven would bless you for that.

THE PREFIX MS-.

245. The prefix dis- indicates separation or movement in
several different directions at once: *

disdoni, to distribute. disigi, to separate (intrans.).

dispeli, to dispel. disigo, .reparation, schism.

disigi, to separate (trans.). dissendi, to send around.

Vocabulary.

ces-i, to cease, to leave off. kauz-i, to cause.

dens-a, dense. leg-o, law.

difin-i, to define. natur-o, nature.

ekzist-i, to exist. objekt-o, object.

flu-i, to flow. plu, further, more.\

gravit-i, to gravitate. turn-i, to turn (trans.).

PRI LA GRAVITADO.

1. Ofte oni parolas pri la pezeco de diversaj objektoj.
Tia pezeco estas kaiizata de la forto kiun oni nomas la
gravitado. Pro tiu forto ne nur objektoj sur la tero, sed
ankau la tero mem, havas konatan pezecon, kiun la kleru-

* Cf. the English prefix dis- in disperse, disseminate, distribute, etc.

t The adverb plu gives an idea of continuance to the word which it modifies.
When used with ne, the two together give an idea of cessation concerning a
previous continuous act or state:

Ambaii paroles plu morgau, hoih will talk further to-morrow.
Mi ne plu haltos, / shall not stop (any) more.
Li ne plu sajnis muta, he no longer seerned mute.

§245] LESSON LII. 191

loj jam antau longe kalkulis. La suno kaj la luno simile 5
havas pezecon, 6ar ili ambaii, same kiel la tero, movi^as
lau tiu sama gravitado kiu efektive regas 6iujii el la fiielaj
korpoj. Se la gravitado 6esus ekzisti, la riveroj ne plu
fluus antauen en siaj fluejoj (beds). Ne fluante de altaj
^is malaltaj lokoj, la akvo disfluus, aii restus tie, kie ajn gi lo
okaze estus. Neniom da pluvo falus; kontraue, la mal-
sekajo en la aero ankoraii restus tie, en la forme de densaj
mallumaj 6iamaj nuboj. Ciuj vivaj estajoj (beings), 6iuj
konstruajoj, efektive 6io, baldatt disflugus de la rapide
turniganta mondo. Ciuj ci (all these) nun devas resti suns
la tero, tial ke la gravitado restigas ilin 6i tie. Se la gra-
vitado ne plu ekzistus, nenio restus plu sur la tero. La
aero mem ne plu 6irkauus nin, sed gi ankatt forlasus la
mondon, tuj maldensiginte (having become rarefied). La
fama angla filozof o Newton estis la unua, kiu studadis la so
kialon (reason) de la falado de objektoj. Li komencis,
lati la rakonto, per okaza ekrigardo al falantaj pomoj en sia
propra pomarbejo. Antati tri jarcentoj, li eltrovis ke
estas tia forto kia la gravitado, kaj difinis la naturajn
le^ojn lati kiuj la gravitado sin montras. Ci tiu forto, kiu 25
restigas 6ion sur la tero, estas tamen la katizo de nia
lacigado, kiam ni marsas ati kuras, 6ar gi faras nin pezaj,
kaj tial ni ofte deziras halti kaj ripozi. Estas ankatt la
malfacileco en la superado de tiu sama forto, kiu faras tiel
malfacila la konstruadon de utilaj aer§ipoj. 30

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Newton was an Englishman who lived three centuries
ago. 2. One day he was walking in his orchard, and, notic-
ing the falling apples, he stood still (ekhaltis) and began
to wonder why they fall. 3. He studied the cause of their
falling, wishing to discover whatever laws of nature he

192 LESSON LIII. [§246

could. 4. He watched various falling objects, and tried to
calculate their velocity (rapideco). 5. Finally he recog-
nized that force which is called gravitation. 6. Of course
(kompreneble) gravitation had always existed, but its laws
were not noticed or clearly defined until Newton studied
the matter. 7. If gravitation should not exist any more,
no rain would fall, but instead of condensing, the moisture
would remain above our heads in eternal clouds. 8. But
gradually the moisture and the air itself, becoming rarefied,
would fly away from the earth, being held no longer by the
force of gravitation. 9. The water in the rivers would leave
off flowing (cease to flow) on toward the sea, because now
the water flows from high to low places only on account of
gravitation. 10. Instead of gravitating toward the sea, in
fact, the water would flow in every direction (245) out of
the riverbeds, or would remain there, without moving at all
(tute ne movante). 11. Nothing on earth would remain here
very long, but everything would fly off the quickly moving
world, and leave it entirely bare. Soon, also, the earth
itself would break-into-pieces (245) .

LESSON LIII.

CONDITIONS CONTRARY TO FACT.
246. A condition contrary to fact indicates that the oppo-
site of what is mentioned has really taken place or is taking
place. It expresses the speaker's certainty that an act or
state would have been realized, if some other act or state
were also realized. Such conditions cannot refer to the
future, but only to present or past time. The conditional
mood is used:

Se vi estus turninta vin, vi estus vidinta tion, if you had turned, you
would have seen that.

§§247-248] LESSON liii. 193

Se la malsekajo ne estus densiginta, ne estus pluvinte, if the moisture

had not condensed, it would not have rained.
Se li estus kaptita, li estus punita, if he had been caught, he would have

been punished.
Se li estus sidanta tie, mi vidus lin, if he were {if he should be) sitting

there, I should see him.
Se la gravitado ne ekzistus, tiu pluvo ne estus falanta, if gravitation

did not (should not) exist, that rain would not be falling.

THE VERB DEVI.

247. The verb devi (c/. devo, duty) is equivalent to the
verb must (which in English has no future, past, infini-
tive, etc.), and to to have to, to be obliged to, etc., carrying
the idea of must into all tenses and moods. In the con-
ditional mood its meaning is softened into a vaguer sense
(of moral obligation), and carries the idea of ought:

Objektoj en la aero devas fali, objects in the air have to fall.

Ni devis agi lau la legoj, we had to act according to the laws.

Vi devos iri, you must {will have to) go.

§i ne volas devi fari tion, she does not wish to have to do that.

Hi devigis min iri, they compelled me to go.

Vi devus iri, you should go {you ought to go).

Oni devus pensi antaii ol paroli, one ought to think before speaking.

Li estus devinta veni, he ought to have come.

Tio devus esti farita, that ought to have been done.

THE PREPOSITION SEN.

248. The preposition sen, without, indicates'the omission,
absence or exclusion of that which is expressed by its
complement.* It may be used as a prefix (160), giving a

* English phrases containing " without " as in " without reading," must be
changed to phrases clearly containing verbal nouns, as "without the reading of,"
before translating into an Esperanto phrase with sen. Othen\'ise a participle
with ne should replace the phrase (222) :
Sen la legado de tio, mi ne komprenus, without {the) reading (of) that, 1 should not

und&r stand.
Ne leginte tion, mi ne komprenus, without reading {not having read) that, 1 should

not understand.

194 LESSON LIII. [§248

sense of deprivation or exclusion (like that given by the
English suffix -less):

Li difiiais la vorton sen eraro, he defined the word without an error.

La rivero sen£ese fluas, the river flows without ceasing.

Tio estas ne nur senutila sed et malutila, that is not only useless but

even harmful.
Li ne plu estas senmona, he is no longer penniless.
Li sentime alproksimigis al gi, he fearlessly approached it.

Vocabulary.

akuz-i, to accuse. nobl-a, noble.

instru-i, to teach. pardon-i, to pardon.

kondamn-i, to condemn. pek-i, to sin.

konfes-i, to confess, to admit, prav-a, right, correct.

konscienc-o, conscience. sen, without (248).

kulp-o, guilt. So-krato, Socrates.

merit-i, to deserve. venen-o, poison.

LA FILOZOFO SOKRATO.

Unu el la plej famaj grekaj filozofoj estis nomita Sok-
rato. Li estis malbela malalta persono, kun senhara kapo
kaj dika korpo, sed malgrau tio li estis treege bona, nobla
kaj saga. Li instruadis per interparolado kun la lernantoj .

5 Kutime li komencis per demando pri io ajn, pri kio la atis-
kultanto respondos. Fine, la lernanto grade komprenis cu
liaj propraj opinio] pri la afero estas pravaj . Ankoraii nun
oni nomas tiun metodon de instruado per la interparolado
" la Sokrata metodo." Sokrato diradis tute sen timo 6ion,

10 kion li pensis, e6 pri la dioj kaj pri la nekredeblaj rakontoj
pri la dioj . Se li ne estus tiel multe klariginta, eble li estus
vivinta pli longan tempon. Sed multaj personoj malamis
lin, precipe 6ar li donis novajn ideojn al la junuloj, kiuj
sekve komencis pensi por si mem, anstatau fari tion kion

isfaras ciu alia. Tial oni akuzis Sokraton en la ju^ejo,

§248] LESSON LIII. 195

nomante lin pekanto kaj malbonfaranto, unue, car li ne
disdonas oferojn al la dioj, due, car li enkondukas novajn
diojn (6ar li diris ke supernatura vo6o, kiu sendube estis lia
nomo por la konscienco, parolis malloilte 6e lia orelo),
trie, 6ar li malbonigas la junularon de la urbo. Se li estus 20
konfesinte la kiilpon kaj petinte pardonon, tiam la jugistoj
eble estus punintaj lin per nura (mere) monpago (fine).
Sed li fiere respondis ke efektive li multe plibonigas la
junularon, kaj anstatau esti malutila, aii e6 neutila, li
treege utilas al la urbo. Li diris ke oni havas nenianss
rajton puni lin, sed ke, katize de sia bonfarado al la urbo,
li efelrtive meritas ciutagan mangon senpagan. Tamen,
tute ne kompreninte kiel prava Sokrato estas, la jugistoj
mortkondamnis lin. Oni devigis lin trinki la venenon.
lom poste, en la malliberejo, li trankvile adiatiis siajn3C
plorantajn amikojn, kaj akceptinte la venenan trinka|on,
sentime ^in trinkis.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Socrates believed that if one knows about good and
evil (201) he will do good, but will not do evil. 2. There-
fore he wished to help mankind (la homaron) ,' teaching
them what the good is. 3. He also wished to discover for
himself what is right and what is wrong. 4. So he asked
every one whom he met (about) his opinions, and the one-
talking-with [him] would also notice whether his own
ideas were right or not. 5. But the fellow-citizens of Soc-
rates were jealous, and hated him, because they did not
understand him. 6. Therefore they accused him, called
him a sinner, and sent around (245) false reports (falsajn
sciigojn) about him. 7. Because he said that conscience
guided him (in the form of a soft voice at his ear), they
accused him of (pri) introducing (218, b) new gods. 8.

196

LESSON LIV.

[§§249-250

They also said that he was corrupting the youth of the city.
9. If Socrates had pleaded guilty, and begged for a fine
instead of the death-punishment, without doubt he would
have been pardoned and fined (monpunita). 10. But he
said " I have never in my life sinned in any way, and I do
not deserve any sort of punishment." So the judges con-
demned him to death by the drinking of poison.

LESSON LIV.

SUMMARY OF CONDITIONS

249. The three kinds of conditional sentences, together
with the moods and tenses used in them, may be tabulated
as follows:

Name.

Factual

Less Vivid

Contrary to Fact

Subject Matter

facts

suppositions

opposite of facts

Time

any

(usually) future

present or past

Mood

indicative

conditional
(usually) aoristio

conditional

Tense

any-

(usually) compound

CLAUSES OP IMAGINATIVE COMPARISON.

250. Clauses of imaginative comparison are introduced
by the conjunction kvazaii, as though, as if. Sometimes
the verb in the comparison may be left unexpressed or
merely implied:

Li trinkas la venenon kvazau gi estus vino, he drinks the poison as

though it were wine.
La kondamnito inar§is kvazafi kun malfacileco, the condemned man

walked as if with difficulty.
Li konfesis kvazau kulpulo, he confessed like a culprit.

§§251-253] LESSON Liv. 197

THE USE OF AL TO EXPRESS REFERENCE.

251. Personal pronouns, and less frequently nouns, may
be used with the preposition al to express concern or in-
terest on the part of the person indicated by the comple-
ment of this preposition: *

Li bruligis al si la manon, he burned his hand.
Ill trancis al li la barbon, they cut his beard (the beard for him).
§i preparas al ni bonan mangon, she is preparing us a good meal.
Cu vi faros servon al mi? Will you do me a service?

252. By an extension of its use in expressing reference,
al may often be used in the place of de expressing separa-
tion (170), when the use of de might seem to indicate
agency (169) or possession (49) : f

La luno estas kasata al ni de la nuboj, the moon is hidden from us (to

us) by the clouds.
6i estas Stelita al mi de li, it has been stolen from me by him.

THE SUFFIX -ESTR-.

253. The suffix -esti:- is used to indicate the chief, head,
or one in control of that which is expressed in the root:

lernejestro, (school) principal. urbestro, mayor.

monafiestro, abbot. estraro, governing body.

policestro, chief of police. sipestro, ship-captain.

* The use of al in this sense, approaching that of per but less purposeful and
definite, resembles the " dative of reference " and " ethical dative " of other
languages, as in French je 7ne suis hrule la langue, I have burned my tongue, German
ich wasche mir die Hlinde, I wash my hands, Latin sese Caesari ad pedes proi-
cerunt, they threw themselves at the feet of Ccesar, Greek ri <roi iiaer^troiiat; what am
I to learn for you f etc.

t This use resembles the " dative of separation " of other languages, as in
German es stahl mir das Leben, it stole the life from me, French il me prend la vie,
it takes my life, Latin hunc mihi timorem eripe, remove this fear from me, Greek
Se^aro oi (TKTjTTTpov, he took his sceptre from him, etc.

198 LESSON LIV. [§253

VOCABULABY.

Aristejd-0, Aristeides. popol-o, a people.

ekzil-i, to exile. pot-o, pot.

enu-i, to be wearied, bored. senc-o, meaning, sense.

gust-a, exact.* signif-i, to signify.

kvazau, as though, as if (250). son-i, to sound.

ostr-o, oyster. strang-a, strange.

ostracism-o, ostracism. sel-o, shell, bark, peel.

LA OSTRACISMO DE ARISTEJDO.

La vorto ostracismo havas interesan devenon (origin).
En ^ia komenco oni rekonas la grekan vorton kiu sig-
nifas " selon de la ostro." En gia fino oni vidas la
saman "-ismon " kiu, deveninte de la greka, ankoraii estas

suzata kiel vortfino en multaj diversaj lingvoj. La nuna
senco de la vorto, facile trovebla en anglaj vortaroj (dic-
tionaries), devenas de la jena greka kutimo:

Sepdek jarojn antaii ol vivadis Sokrato, oni faris stran-
gan legon en lia urbo. Laii tin, oni povis ekzili iun ajn

loestron kies ideoj pri la administrado de la urbo ne sajnis
pravaj. Ci tion oni povis fari, tute sen jugado aii ec aku-
zado, car oni havis la jenan metodon: se ce popola kun-
veno ses mil urbanoj vo6donis (vote) kontratt iun ajn, tiu
estis devigata foriri de la urbo, kaj forresti dek jarojn. Li

15 povis neniel havigi (get) al si pardonon, sed devis tuj
foriri kvazau konfesinta kulpulo. Por vofidonoj, oni
skribis la nomon de la kondamnoto sur peco da potajo
(pottery), att =pli ofte sur ostroselo. Guste tial oni nomas
la kutimon ostracismo. Unufoje, kelkaj malamikoj pro-

2oponis vofidonadon pri la ostracismo de tre bona kaj nobla
viro, nomita Aristejdo, kiu tute ne meritis tian punadon.

* Care must be taken to distinguish gusta, exact, guste, exactly, just, from
justa, upright, just, juste, justly, and also from the adverb ]us, just (ftn., p. 116).

§253]

LESSON LIV.

199

Antati ol la kunveno disigis, kamparano alproksimigis al
Aristejdo (kiu mem ceestis), petante lian helpon, 6ar la
neinstmita kamparano ne povis skribi. La sagulo diris
" Kion vi volas skribi sur la selo?" La kamparano, ne25
sciante ke li parolas al la viro mem, respondis " Aristej-
don." Skribinte gin, Aristejdo demandis kun trankvila
konscienco " Pro guste kiaj pekoj vi malamas Aristej-
don?" La kamparano respondis, " Ho, mi ne kasos al vi
ke mi ec ne konas lin! Sed mi deziras ekzili lin nur car so
min enuigas la sono de lia nomo. Mi tre enuas ciam aii-
dante lin nomata Aristejdo la justa!"

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

L Aristeides had just arrived at the popular assembly
when a peasant approached him. 2. If Aristeides had not
had a pleasant countenance and musical (belsonan) voice,
doubtless the peasant would not have asked his help.
3. Ought Aristeides to have written his own name on the
oyster-shell or piece of pottery which was going to be used
as a vote against him? 4. Without just (exactly) this help,
the peasant could not have voted. 5. Doing him the serv-
ice requested, Aristeides said, as if (250) he himself were
not the man under-discussion (205), " Why do you hate
Aristeides? 6. Could you tell me how he has sinned
against the city?" 7. The silly-creature (132) replied,
" Oh, I know nothing about him, but I am weary [of]
always hearing him called the just." 8. Ought such per-
sons as that ignorant peasant have-the-right to vote
about important affairs? 9. The ancient law about
ostracism was a strange [one]. 10. The name of the per-
son to-be-exiled (199) was usually written upon an oyster-
shell, and the meaning of the word signifying the custom
comes from that. IL Through (per) ostracism, any

200 LESSON Lv. [§§254-255

leader could be banished, justly or unjustly, without trial
of any kind, or explanation of the reasons.

LESSON. LV

THE IMPERATIVE MOOD.

254, For expressions of command, exhortation, en-
treaty, etc., there is an imperative mood, as in English.
The ending of the imperative mood is -u. Besidfe the
aoristic tense, six compound tenses are formed by com-
bining the participles with the imperative mood estu of
the auxiliary verb, but these tenses are seldom used. The
conjugation of vidi in the aoristic tense of this mood, to-
gether with a synopsis in the compound tenses, is as follows:

Aoristic Tense.
mi vidu ! let me see! ni vidu ! let us see!

(vi) vidu! (you) see! (vi) vidu! (you) see!

li (Si, gi) vidu ! let him (her, it) see! ili vidu ! let them see!

Compound Tenses.
Active. Passive.

Present: mi estu vidanta, Present: mi estu vidata,

Past: mi estu vidinta, Past: mi estu vidita,

Future: mi estu vidonta. Future: mi estu vidota.

RESOLVE AND EXHORTATION.

255. The first person singular of the imperative mood
is used to express the speaker's resolve concerning his own
action, or an exhortation to himself concerning such action.
The first person plural is used to express resolve or ex-
hortation concerning the joint action of the speaker and
the person or persons addressed: *

Mi pensu pri tio ! Let me think about that !

* This force is usually expressed in English by " let " with an accusative and
infinitive construction.

§§256-257] LESSON Lv. 201

Mi ne forgesu tion! / must not {do not let me) forget that!

Ni ekzilu lin ! Let us exile him!

Ni ne sidifu tie! Let us not sit down there!

Ni estu grize vestitaj ! Let us be dressed in gray !

COMMANDS AND PROHIBITIONS.

256. The second and third persons of the imperative are
used to express peremptory commands and prohibitions.

a. In the second person the pronoun is usually omitted,
as in English, unless special emphasis is placed upon it:

Estu trankvila ! Becalm! (One person is addressed.)

Estu pretaj por akompani min! Be ready to accompany me! (Two or

more persons are addressed.)
Parolu kvazaii vi komprenus ! Talk as though you understood !
Ne fermu tiun pordon! Do not shut that door!
Ne estu vidata tie ! Do not he seen there !

b. In the third person a circumlocution in English is
necessary in translation (as let, must, are to, is to, etc.):

Li estu zorga! Let him he careful {he must he careful)!

§i ne faru tion ! Do not let her do that {she is not to do that) !

Cio estu pardonata! Let everything be forgiven!

Oni lasu min trankvila ! People are to let me alone !

Hi neniam revenu! Let them never {do not let them ever) return!

La kulpuloj estu punataj ! Let the culprits be punished !

LESS PEREMPTORY USES OF THE IMPERATIVE.

257- By an extension of its use in resolve, exhortation,
command and prohibition, the imperative mood may be
employed for less peremptory expressions, such as re-
quest, wish, advice, etc., and in questions of deliberation or
perplexity, or requests for instruction:

Request: Cesu tiun bruon, mi petas! Stop that noise, I beg!
Bonvolu fari tion! Please do that!
Pardonu al ni niajn pekojn! Forgive us our sins!

202

LESSON LV.

[§258

Wish: 111 estu felicaj ! May they be happy !

Dio vin benu ! Ood bless you !

Vivu la rego ! {Long) live the king !
Advice: Pensu antau ol agi ! Think before acting!

Foriru, se vi ne estas kontenta! Go away, if you are not
satisfied !
Consent: Nu, parolu, sed mi ne aiiskultos! Well, talk, but I shall not
listen !

Iru tuj, se vi volas, go at once, if you like.
Question: Cu mi faru tion aii ne? Am I to do that or not?

Cu ni disdonu la librojn? Shall we distribute the books?

Cu li estu kondamnita? Shall he be condemned?

Cu ili venu £i tien? Are they to (shall they) come here?

THE USE OF MO§TO.

258. The word mosto may be used alone, or after a title,
to denote respect. When used after a title, the title be-
comes an adjective:

Lia refa mo§to, his majesty. Lia jugista mosto, his honor the judge.
Sia refina mo§to, her majesty. Lia urbestra mosto, his honor the mayor.
Cu via moSto lin audis? Did your honor {excellency, etc.) hear him,?

VoO.'i.BTJLAKY.

Afrik-0, Africa.
barbar-o, barbarian.
Damokl-o, Damocles.
flank-o, side.
imperi-o, empire.
konsent-i, to consent.
konsil-i, to advise.

molt-o, a title (see 258).
ordon-i, to order, to bid.
permes-i, to permit.
plac-i, to please.
^sklav-o, slave.
sol-a, sole, only.
volont-e, willingly.

LA GLAVO DE DAMOKLO.

Antaii pli multe ol dumil jaroj vivis en Sirakuzo, sur la
insulo Sikelio, tre kruela tirano. Li diris al si " Mi estu
6iopova (all-powerful)]" Tial li faris multe da militadoj,

§258] LESSON Lv. 203

kaj venkis ne nur barbarajn popolojn, sed ankafl. multajn
urbojn en Italujo kaj norda Afriko. Detruinte feion sen 5
kompato, li ordonis " La logantoj estu vendataj por
sklavoj!" Li deziris fari por si, el lavenkitaj kaj sklavi-
gitaj popoloj.unu grandan imperion. Sed la urboj 6ie, eS
en Grekujo, ne kasis al li sian grandan malamon al tia
tirano. Tial li 6iam timis pri sia vivo, timante ke iu subite lo
mortigos lin. Unufoje Damoklo, amiko de la tirano, diris
al li, " Se mi estus tiel ri6a kaj pova kiel via rega mosto, mi
estus treege felica!" La tirano respondis, " Venn al festo
6e mi, se tio pla6as al vi, kaj eltrovu 6u mi devus esti felica
au ne." " Mi venos tre volonte," ekkriis Damoklo, " kaj is
mi dankas vian moston pro tia afableco!" La tirano gentile
respondis " Ho, estas nenio (=you are welcome)l Nur ne
forgesu la deciditan horon!" Je la gusta horo Damoklo
iris al la festo, kie oni donis al li segon flanke de la tirano
mem. " Mangu kaj trinku kiom ajn vi volas," konsilis la 20
tirano, " kaj poste ni parolos pri la feli6eco." Damoklo
tuj konsentis al tia propono, kaj agis lau la permeso tiel
afable donita al li. Mangante bonegan mangajon, kaj
trinkante dol6an vinon, li tute ne enuis 6e la festo. Baldaii
la. tirano diris " Rigardu supren, kaj vidu guste kian felice-25
con mi havas!" Supren rigardinte, Damoklo ekvidis
akran glavon, antatie kasitan al li de kurteno. Subtenate
de unu sola haro, la glavo sajnis kvazati tuj falonta sur la
kapon de Damoklo. " La dioj min helpu!" li ekkriis, for-
saltinte de la tablo. Pro la jus dirita stranga rakonto, oni 30
ankoraii nun nomas la atendadon por io timeginda, kio
Sajnas ciam okazonta sed efektive ne okazas, " la glavo de
Damoklo."

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. The word ostracism comes from the Greek word signi-
fying " oyster-shell." 2. It has its present meaning be-

204 LESSON Lvi. [§259

cause oyster-shells or pieces of pottery were used for the
voting. 3. The story about Aristeides is interesting, but
that about the sword of Damocles is also interesting.
4. His friend, the Syracusan tyrant, had permitted all
sorts of injustices, against not only barbarians but even
Greeks. 5. His only bidding usually was " Let every in-
habitant be sold as a slave!" 6. He thought " Let me
make one sole empire out of Africa, Italy and Sicily!"
7. Damocles said to him " Your royal highness ought to be
very happy!" 8. The tyrant answered, " Come to a feast
tomorrow, and find out. I will give you a seat (214, b)
beside me." 9. Damocles willingly consented, and went
thither. 10. The tyrant advised " Let us eat and drink
until midnight, if that would be-pleasing to you. Then
let us discuss the problem about happiness." IL After a
few hours Damocles heard a slight sound over his head, and
the tyrant said to him, " Look up and you will see what
kind of happiness mine is." 12. " Heaven defend me!"
exclaimed Damocles, catching sight of a sharp sword
hanging by a single (sole) hair.

LESSON LVI.

THE IMPERATIVE IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES.

259. The imperative mood is used in a subordinate
clause, with a meaning similar to that in its independent
use, after a main verb expressing command, exhortation,
resolve, consent, wish, etc., or after any word or general
expression of command, intention, necessity, expedience,
etc.* Such clauses are introduced by the conjunction ke:

* In English and some other languages an imperative idea may often be
expressed by the infinitive, as " I wish you to go," but in Esperanto this must be
expressed by the equivalent of " I wish that you go." The infinitive may not be

§260] LESSON LVI. 205

Command and Prohibition.

Li diras ke vi iru, he says that you are to go.

§i skribis al li ke li venu, she wrote him to come.

Mi malpermesas ke vi restu, I forbid you to remain.

Ni ordonos ke li estu punata, we shall order that he be punished.
Request and Wisli.

Mi petas ke vi ne lasu min, / beg that you do not leave me.

Mi petegas ke vi estu trankvilaj, I implore you to be calm.

Li deziras ke ili estu sklavigitaj, he desires that they be enslaved.

Ni volis ke li ne forgesu tion, we wished him not to forget that.
Advice, Consent, Permission.

Mi konsilis al li ke li iru, / advised him, to go.

Mi konsentis ke li restu, / consented that he remain.

Ili permesos ke la barbaroj forkuru, they will permit the barbarians to
escape {that the barbarians escape).
Questions.

Li demandas cu ili foriru, he inquires whether they are to go away.

Oni demandis cu lia mosto eniru, they asked whether his honor was to
enter.

Mi miras cu mi faru tion, I wonder whether I am to do that.
Intention, Expedience, Necessity, etc.

Ni intencas ke vi estu helpata, we intend that you shall be helped.

Lia propono estas ke ni ricevu la duonon, his proposal is, that we re-
ceive the half.

Lia lasta ordono estis, ke vi venu, his last order was that you come.

Estos bone ke vi ne plu nomu lin, it will be well for you not to (that
you do not) mention him any more.

Estas dezirinde ke ni havu bonan imperiestron, it is desirable that we
have a good emperor.

Estis necese ke £iu starigu, it was necessary for everyone to rise.

Plafios al li ke vi iru, he will be pleased to have you go.

THE PREPOSITION JE.

260. Since prepositional uses are not exactly alike in any
two languages, it is not always possible to translate a

used except when it can itself be the subject of the verb in such general statements
as " it is necessary to go."

206 LESSON LVI. [§261

preposition of one language by what is its equivalent in
some senses in another.* In order to insure some means
of translating correctly into Esperanto any prepositional
phrase of the national languages, the preposition je is
regarded as of rather indefinite meaning. In addition to
its use in dates and allusions to time (89, 185), it may be
employed when no other preposition gives the exact sense
required, especially in protestations and exclamations,
expressions of measure (see also 139), and of indefinite
connection: f

Je la nomo de cielo ! In the name of Heaven !

Je mia honoro mi ja elfaros tion! On my honor I will accomplish

that !
6i estas longa je du mejloj, it is two miles long (long by two miles).
Ili venis je gfandaj nombroj, they came in great numbers.
Li estas tenata de la policano, je la brako, per forta snurego, he is

held by the policemen, by the arm, with (by) a strong rope.

THE SUFFIX -0P-.

261. The suffix -op- is used to form collective numerals:

duope, by twos, in pairs. milope, by thousands.

kvarope, by jours. sesopigi, to form into groups of six.

* The translation given tor a preposition in any dictionary is the general one
which serves in the majority of cases. The finer shades of meaning and real or
apparent exceptions can merely be touched upon if mentioned at all.

t The preposition je is used to express indefinite connection after the following
words (other prepositions sometimes used are given in parentheses) :
ekkrii je (pro), to cry out at. (sin) okupi je, to busy (oneself) at.

enui je, to be bored with. plena je (de), full of.

fiera je (pri), proud of. preni je, to take by.

fidi je (al), to rely upon. provizi je (per), to provide with.

goji je (pri), to rejoice at. ricigi je (per), to enrich with.

gratuli je (pri), congratulate on: ridi je, to laugh at.

honti je (pri), to be ashamed of. satigi je, to be sated with.

inda je, worthy of. senigi je, to deprive of.

interesigi je, to take interest in. simila je (al), similar to.

kapti je, to seize by. sopiri je (al), to yearn for.

kontenta je (kun), content with. sargi je, to load with.

kredi je, to believe in. teni je, to hold by.

§261] LESSON LVI, 207

VoCABULAEY.

cel-i, to aim. prokrast-i, to delay (trans.).

Cirus-o, Cyrus. proviz-i, to provide.

fidi, to rely. rezult-i, to result.

gu-i, to enjoy. sopir-i, to yearn, to sigh.

honor-o, honor. spac-o, space.

krom, beside, save, but. terur-a, terrible.

plen-a, full. ver-o, truth.

LA marSado de la dekmil grekoj.

lam Ciruso, nepo de Ciruso Granda, sopiris je la imperio
de sia pli maljuna frato, kiu sekvis la patron de ambaii fratoj
kiel rego, aii pli guste imperiestro. Decidinte forigi de la
regeco (to dethrone) sian fraton, Ciruso petis la grekojn ke
ill partoprenu (take part) en kelkaj negravaj militadoj. 5
Multaj tiamaj grekoj tre volonte sin okupis je la batalado,
pro la granda pago ricevata. La venditaj sklavoj kaj la
detruitaj konstruajoj 6iam provizis ilin je multe da ricajo,
kaj krom tio la militistoj sajnis gui ec la militadon mem.
Estis tute indiferente al ili 6u la kaiizo de la militado estas 10
prava kaj justa aii ne. Unue Ciruso nur petis ke ili helpu
liajn proprajn soldatojn kontrau iuj najbaroj. Li ka§is
al ili sian veran celon, 6ar se la grekoj estus suspektintaj
tion, kion li intends fari, ili neniam estus akompanintaj lin
tiel malproksimen de sia patrolando. Grade li kondukis is
ilin trans tutan Azion, kaj fine la dekmil grekoj kom-
prenis 6ion, kaj treege kolerigis. Paroladante al ili,
Ciruso tuj diris " Mi ne permesas ke vi reiru, kaj mi pe-
tegas ke vi antaiien marsadu kun mi, sen plua (further)
prokrasto! Se mi sukcesos kontrau mia frato, mi cer-20
tigas vin je mia honoro ke ciu el vi revenos havante sakojn
pleriajn je rifiajo! Estas nur necese ke vi fidu je mi, kaj
6io estos bona!" Tiam la spldatoj hontis je sia antaua

208 LESSON LVI. [§261

timo, kaj kurage antaiien marsadis. Fine, apud granda
25urbo, la frato de Ciruso elvenis havante okcentmil sol-
datojn, por batali kontrau la centmil de Ciruso. Per la
helpo de siaj grekoj, Ciruso estis preskatt venkinta en
terura batalo, kiam subite li ekvidis sian fraton, je mal-
granda interspace. Ekkriante " Mi vidas la viron!" li
30 rajdis rekte al la rego, jetante sian pezan lancon al li. La
sola rezulto estis la morto de Ciruso mem, 6ar la amikoj
de la rego, kvinope kaj sesope atakinte Ciruson, lin tuj
mortigis.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Cyrus did not desire that his brother should remain
king. 2. He decided, " Let me myself become (farigi)
king! I should much enjoy that!" 3. So he asked the
Greeks to help him in some battles against nearby enemies.
4. Gradually an army (126) of a hundred thousand men,
ten thousand of whom were Greeks, gathered (232, b)
around him. 5. He led them farther and farther, into the
middle of Asia, until finally the Greeks suspected his true
aim. 6. They said to each other in terror, " He did not at
first propose that we fight against the Great King. Let us
return home without delay!" 7. Cyrus addressed (218)
them as follows: " Must I permit you to go back? I im-
plore you to be courageous, and I do advise you not to
forget your longing for (260) honor! 8. Only be worthy of
your leader, and rely upon me ! Do you not wish to return
home provided with wealth, beside the money which I shall
pay to you ?" 9. Immediately the soldiers were ashamed of
their fear, and advanced by hundreds, full of courage. 10.
Soon the brother of Cyrus approached, with (havante) eight
hundred thousand men. 1 1. By the aid of the Greeks, Cyrus
won the battle, but he himself lost his life. 12. So neither
he nor the Greeks could enjoy the result of their efforts.

§§262-264] LESSON lvii. 209

LESSON LVII.

CLAUSES EXPRESSING PURPOSE.

262. Purpose may be expressed by a subordinate im-
perative clause, introduced by per ke : *

Mi faras gin por ke li helpu vin, / do it in order that he may help you.
Mi ekkriis por ke vi audu, / cried out in order that you should hear.
Li venos por ke ni estu feli£aj, he will come that we may be happy.
Mi studas por ke mi lernu, / study that I may learn.
Hi restu por ke ni punu ilin, let them stay for us to punish them.

FURTHER USES OF THE ACCUSATIVE.f

263. The accusative of direction of motion is used after
nouns from roots expressing motion:

Lia eniro en la urbon estis subita, his entrance into the city was sudden.
La irado lien estos plezuro, (the) going thither will be a pleasure.
6ia falado teren timigis min, its falling earthward terrified me.

264. a. An intransitive verb may be followed by a noun
in the accusative case, if the meaning of the noun is re-
lated to that of the verb:

Li vivas agrablan vivon, he lives an agreeable life.
§i dancis belan dancon, she danced a beautiful dance.
Ili ploris maldolcajn larmojn, they wept bitter tears.

b. Verbs of motion (iri, veni, pasi, marsi, veturi, etc.)
compounded with prepositions or adverbs (121) indicat-
ing direction, also compounds of such verbs as esti and
stari with prepositions expressing situation, may be fol-

* Cf. the expression of purpose by the infinitive with por (98), which however
cannot be used except when the subject of the main verb is the subject of the
subordinate verb, or when the object of the main verb is the subject of the sub-
ordinate verb.

t Cf. the accusative of direct object (23), direction of motion (46, 121), time
(91), and measure (139).

210 LESSON Lvii. [§§265-266

lowed by the accusative, instead of by a prepositional
phrase in which the preposition is repeated:

La viro preterpasis la domon, the man passed Q>y) the house.

Lin antauvenis du sklavoj, there preceded {came before) him two slaves.

Ni supreniru la stuparon, let us go up the stairs.

Mi Ceestis la feston, / attended (was present at) the entertainment.

Mi kontraustaras vian opinion, I oppose {withstand) your opinion.

c. The slight change in meaning given by pri used as a
prefix may render intransitive verbs transitive.* The
same is true of el prefixed to intransitive verbs not ex-
pressing motion (see also p. 118, ftn.):
§i priploris la mortintan birdon, she mourned the dead bird.
Mi pripensos la aferon, I shall consider {think over) the matter.
Ni |;in priparolos, we shall talk it over.
Li klare elparolas la vortojn, he pronounces the words clearly.

265. The accusative may be used after verbs of such
meaning that either a prepositional phrase or an accusative
would seem correct:

Mi pardonas lin (al li), / pardon (grant pardon to) him.'f

Mi helpis lin (al li), / helped (gave aid to) him.

6i placas min (al mi), it pleases (is pleasing to) me.

Li obeis nin (al ni), he obeyed (was obedient to) us.

§i ridis mian timon (je mia timo), she ridiculed (laughed at) my fear.

266. The accusative may be used after certain adverbs
which are normally followed by a prepositional phrase:

Rilate tion (rilate al tio), in regard to that.

Escepte tion (escepte de tio), with the exception of that.

Koncerne la aferon (koncerne je la afero), concerning the affair.

Kompare la alian (kompare kun la alia), in comparison with the other.

Konforme la Ieg;on (konforme al la lego), in conformity to the law.

* In this use pri resembles the English and German inseparable prefix he-,
as in English bemoan, bewail, bethink, bespeak, German beklagen, besprechen,
hedenken sick, etc.

t When ambiguity would be caused, as by the presence of another accusative,
this construction may not be employed. One may say pardonu nin, but must
say pardonu al ni niajn pekojn.

§267]

LESSON LVII.

211

SYNOPSIS OF THE CONJUGATION OF THE VERB.
267. vidi, to see.

ACTIVE.

PASSIVE.

INDICATIVE.

Present.
{Aoristic) mi vidas
{Progressive) mi estas vidanta

mi estas vidata

•
{Aoristic) mi vidis
{Imperfect) mi estis vidanta

ist.

mi estis vidata

Put
{Aoristic) mi vidos
{Progressive) mi estos vidanta

ure.

mi estos vidata

mi estas vidinta

Perfect.

mi estas vidita

mi estis vidinta

Pluperfect.

mi estis vidita

mi estos vidinta

Future Perfect.

mi estos vidita

mi estas vidonta

Periphrastic Futures.
{Present).

mi estas vidota

mi estis vidonta

{Past.)

mi estis vidota

mi estos vidonta

{Future.)

mi estos vidota

212 LESSON LVII. [§267

ACTIVE. PASSIVE.

CONDITIONAL.

Present.

{Aoristic) mi vidus
(Progressive) mi estus vidanta

mi estus vidata

mi estus vidinta

Past.

mi estus vidita

mi estus vidonta

Future.
1

mi estus vidota

IMPERATIVE.

Present.

(Aoristic) mi vidu
(Progressive) mi estu vidanta

mi estu vidata

mi estu vidinta

Past.

mi estu vidita

mi estu vidonta

Future.

mi estu vidota

INFINITIVE.

Present.

(Aoristic) vidi
(Progressive) esti. vidanta

esti vidata

Perfect.
esti vidinta I esti vidita

Future.
esti vidonta I esti vidota

§268] LESSON LVII. 213

THE SUFFIX -UM-.
268. The indefinite sufSx -um- serves the same general
purpose in word formation which je serves as an indefinite
preposition (260):

aerumi, to air. kolumo, collar.

buSumo, muzzle. plenumi, to fulfil.

gustumi, to taste. proksimume, approximately.

Vocabulary.

eben-a, level, even. nepr-e, inevitably, certainly.

escept-o, exception. obe-i, to obey.

esper-i, to hope. obstin-a, obstinate.

fremd-a, foreign. promes-i, to promise.

histori-o, history. rilat-o, relation.

kompar-i, to compare. sat-a, satiated.

koncern-i, to concern. sav-i, to save.

konform-i, to conform. verk-i, to compose (books or music).

LA REIRADO DE LA DEKMILO.

La grekaj militistoj sentis grandan teruron kiam Ciruso
ne plu vivis. La celo de la longa marsado ne povis esti
plenumata, pro la morto de la obstina trokura^a militestro
mem. Kvankam la grekoj estis venkintoj, ili estis tute
solaj en fremda lando, fiirkattitaj de barbaroj kiuj, per 5
trompemaj proponoj kaj falsaj promesoj pri amikaj inter-
rilatoj, tuj okazigis la morton de la grekaj estroj. Seni-
gite je siaj estroj, la kompatindaj viroj tute malesperis.
Sed kelkaj subestroj, rapide kunveniginte la soldatojn,
diris, " Ni mem kondukos vin per kiel eble plej rekta vojo 10
hejmen! Ni faros nian eblon (utmost) por ke ni 6iuj estu
savitaj !" Car restis nenio alia por fari, la malfacila mal-
gaja reirado de la grekoj komenci^is sen prokrasto. Ili
transiris varmegajn ebenajojn (plains), supreniris kaj
malsupreniris krutajn negkovritajn montojn, meze de la 15

214 LESSON LVII. [§268

?intro, kaj sen pontoj transiris largajn riverojn. Cie la
malfidindaj barbaroj atakis ilin, kvazaii por ke neniu greko
restu viva. Krom tio, la grekoj mortis dekope kaj du-
dekope ciutage, pro varmegeco, malvarmegeco, laceco kaj

somalsateco (hunger). Fine, post nekredeblaj suferoj, la
restajo de la dekmil soldatoj alvenis sur monton, kaj
ekvidis la maron. Latita ekkriego " La maro ! La maro!"
eksonis inter la lacaj viroj, el kiuj multaj ploris larmojn
de §ojo. De infaneco ili alkutimis al la vojagado per

25akvo, kaj post iom da ripozo ili sin provizis je sipoj, por
transiri la maron al la patrujo je kiu ili estis tiel longe
sopirintaj. Treege interesa historio concerne la tutan
aferon estas verkita de fama greka verkisto (writer), kiu
estis akompaninta Ciruson por ke li povu gui kaj studi

3o6ion interesan sur la vojo. Tiu azia militado de Ciruso
nepre estas unu el la plej rimarkindaj okazintajoj iam
priskribitaj, e6 sen escepto de la posta irado tien de Alek-
sandro Granda.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. After the death of Cyrus, the leaders of the Greek
warriors did not know what to do. 2. In the course of the
following day, one of the leaders of the enemy sent a mes-
senger (205) with deceitful promises about help. 2. He
said " Assemble in our leader's tent, in order that you may
all discuss the matter." 3. The Greek leaders went, al-
though they suspected danger, because they did not know
how else to save their men. 4. But they never returned,
and soon the Greeks understood that the barbarians had
killed them. 5. They wept tears of despair, and said " The
barbarians will inevitably destroy us, for we are in a for-
eign land, where we know neither the languages nor the
roads, and the peoples are without exception hostile to us."

§§269-271] LESSON Lviii. 215

6. But the leaders-of-lesser-rank said " Obey us and fol-
low us, and we shall do our best to save you!" 7. Their
return, across hot plains and snow-covered mountains,
made-more-dif&cult by hunger and by the unceasing at-
tacks of the barbarians, is related in the history written
by a famous Greek historian. 8. One can still read this
interesting narrative, in Greek or in a translation.

LESSON LVIII.
PERMISSION AND POSSIBILITY.

269. Permission is usually expressed by the use of
permesi, lasi, or the imperative mood:

Cu vi permesas ke mi restu? May I {do you permit me to) stay?
Jes, mi permesas (jes, restu), yes, you may {yes, stay).
Ne estas permesate eniri tien, it is not allowed to enter there.
Lasu lin veni, let him come.

270. The idea of possibility or probability is given by
the use of some such adverb as able, kredeble, versajne,
etc.:

Eble li obeos al vi, he may {perhaps he will) obey you.

Kredeble li sukcesos, probably he will succeed.

Versajne vi estas prava, you are probably right.

Eble oni lin savus, they might (possibly they would) save him.

Hi nepre ne batis lin, they could not have {surely did not) beat him.

Tio estas neebla ! That can not be (that is impossible) !

THE PREFIX GE-.

271. Words formed with the prefix ge- indicate the twc
sexes together:

gepatroj, parents. gefiloj, son(s) and daughter{s).

geavoj, grandparents. gefratoj, brother{s) and sister{s).

genepoj, grandchildren. geedzoj, husband{s) and wife {wives).

gesinjoroj, Mr. and Mrs., lady (ladies) and gentleman (gentlemen).

216 LESSON Lviii. [§§272-273

THE SUFFIX -AC-.

272. The suffix -ac- has a disparaging significance:

domaco, a hovel. pentra£i, to daub.

hundaco, a cur. popolaco, rabble, mob.

obstinafia, obstinate. rida£i, to guffaw.

INTERJECTIONS.

273. Interjections are words used to express feeling or
call attention.* Among the more common interjections
are:

Adiaii! Farewell! (171). Ho! Oh! Ho! Nu! Well!

Fil Fie! f Hura! Hurrah! YelWoe! (Ho ve! ^Zas.').

Vocabulary.

Aleksandri-o, Alexandria. fond-i, to found, establish.

Amerik-o, America. hispan-o, Spaniard.

Aristotel-o, Aristotle. kapabl-a, capable.

Australi-o, Australia. komun-a, common, mutual.

bibliotek-o, library. kontinent-o, continent.

eduk-i, to bring up, educate. Krist-o, Christ.

Egipt-o, Egypt. milion-o, million.

estlm-i, to esteem. spite, in spite of.

firm-a, firm. vast-a, vast, extensive.

ALEKSANDRO GRANDA.

Permesu ke mi diru kelkajn vortojn pri la vivo de Alek-

sandro Granda, kiu ne estis matura viro sed havis nur du-

dek jarojn kiam li farigis rego. Liaj gepatroj estis tre zorge

edukintaj hn, kaj la filozofo Aristotelo, kiun li tre alte

5 estimis, estis unu el liaj instruistoj . Aleksandro firme

* Verbs in the imperative, and adverbs, are frequently used as interjections,
as Atentu! Lookout.' A^kultu! Hark! Bonvenu! Welcome.' Antauen! Forward!
Bone! Good.' For! Away! Ja! Indeed! Jen! There! Behold!

t The interjection fi is sometimes used as a disparaging prefix, like -ac- (272),
as fibirdo, ugly bird, ficevalo, a sorry nag.

§273] LESSON LVIII. 217

tenadis sian propran regolandon, kaj ankau Grekujon,
kiun lia patro estis venkinta; krom tio, li faris militadojn
kontraii diversaj fremdaj landoj, unue en Azio, tiam en
Afriko, kie li fondis urbon, kaj gin nomis Aleksandrio.
Aleksandrio nepre estis belega ri6a urbo. Tie trovi-io
^is * poste la fama Aleksandria biblioteko. Se gi ne
estus detruita de fajro, en la datiro de iuj militadoj, ni
sendube konus multe pli bone la sciadon de la antikvaj
grekoj, kiuj versa] ne estis la plej klera popolo iam vivinta
en Eiiropo. Venkinte Egipton, Aleksandro reiris en Azion, 15
gis tre orienta kaj suda partoj, venkante 6iujn 6ie, kvazati
ili estus la plej malkuragaj popolacoj en la mondo. Sed
spite 6ies petoj li estis obstinate nezorgema pri sia sano, kaj
subite, ho ve, li mortis pro febro, tricent dektri jarojn an-
taii Kristo. Se li ne estus tiel frue mortinta, kiel multe liso
estus eble elfarinta! Li esperis venki Hispanujon, Italu-
jon, kaj, mallongavorte, tiom de la okcidenta mondo kiom
li jam posedis de la orienta. Tiam li cells kunigi cion en
unu vastan imperion, kvazaii por fari el la mondo unu
grandan familion. Li intends ke la milionoj da enlo^an- 25
toj akceptu komunajn legojn kaj kutimojn, e6 komunan
lingvon, — kredeble la grekan. Eble li ja havis la kapa-
blecon por fari cion 61. Estas pro tio ke oni ofte atidas la
diron " Aleksandro sopiris je aliaj mondoj por venki."
Tamen, kiel malgranda estis tiu mondo kiun li konislso
La tiamuloj konis nur malgrandan parton de Afriko, de

* The use of trovigi, and also of sin trovi, kusi, stari and sidi, in a sense not
greatly differing from that of esti, avoids the monotonous repetition of forms
of esti, just as English uses lie, sit, perch, etc., in narration for similar reasons :

Multaj vilagoj trovigas tie, many villages are (situated) there.

Egipto trovigas en la nordorienta parte de Afriko, Egypt is {found) in the myrth'

eastern par' of Africa.
Li sin trovis sola en la dszerto, he found himself (he was) alone in the desert.
La urbo Rusis inter du lagoj, the city lay between two lakes.
Sur la montflanko sidis vilajeto, on the mountainside perched a tiny village.

218 LESSON LIX. [§274

Azio, e6 de Eviropo. Hi sciis nenion pri Anglujo, aii pri la
vastaj kontinentoj Australio, norda kaj suda Amerikoj.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Alexander the Great wished to unite the whole world
into one vast empire. 2. He intended that all the dif-
ferent peoples should conform to common laws and that
their sons-and-daughters should speak one common lan-
guage, and in spite of their love for their national lan-
guages, should leave-off speaking them. 3. Possibly he
might have accomplished his object to some extent (217),
if he had not died suddenly when he was only thirty-two
years old. 4. His soldiers marched weeping past his tent,
to bid farewell to their dying leader. 5. They must have
esteemed him very highly! 6. It was Alexander who
founded the city of Alexandria, in Egypt, where approxi-
mately three hundred years before Christ the famous
Alexandrian library was located. 7. It contained an
enormous eollection-of-books^almost seven hundred
thousand. 8. Alas, this extensive library was destroyed
by fire! 9. Alexander, who "sighed for other worlds to
conquer," did not even know of the existence of North and
South America, Australia, or even of England and North-
ern Europe. 10. Beside his Asiatic empire, he knew very
little of Asia, even of China, with its millions of inhab-
itants. 11. How small the world was in those days!

LESSON LIX.

THE POSITION OF UNEMPHATIC PRONOUNS.

274. An unemphatic personal, indefinite or demon-
strative pronoun very frequently precedes the verb of

§275]

LESSON LIX.

219

which it is the object. This is especially true if the verb
in question is an infinitive: *

Mi volas lin vidi, / wish to see him.

Li povos tion fari, he will he able to do that.

Vi devus ion mangi, you ought to eat something.

Cu vi |;ia kredis? Did you believe it?

Se li min vidus, li min savus, if he should see me, he would save me.

SOME INTRANSITIVE VERBS.

275. Some intransitive verbs have English meanings
which do not differ in form from the transitive English
verbs to which they are related. f In Esperanto the suffix
-ig- (214) must be used when the transitive meaning is de-
sired. Some examples are given in the following table:

Verb.

Intransitive Use.

Transitive Use.

Boli ....

La akvo bolas

The water boils

Li boligas la akvon

He boils the water

Bruli . . .

La fajro brulas

The fire burns

Li bruligis la paperon

He burned the paper

Cesi ....

La bruo Cesas

The noise stops

Li fiesigas la bruon

He stops the noise
Li daurigas la bruon

He continues the noise

Dauri . . .

La bruo dauras

The noise continues

* C/. in other languages, as in German ich mochte ihn sehen, French je veux le
voir, Latin se alunt, me defendi, etc. That such pronouns are unemphatic can
be seen from English let her come {= let'er come), make him stop (— make'im
stop), etc., in which the unemphatic forms er, im, replace him, her, in pronuncia-
tion (cf. the Greek enclitic pronouns fj-ov, ijlol, fxe, crou, croi, <ri, ov, oX, e, the San-
skrit enclitic forms md, m.e, tvd, te, nas, vas, enam, enat, enam, also sim, and the
Avestan I, Im). The same phenomenon is indicated in prithee (^ pray thee),
and in the spellings gimme (^ give me), lemme (^ let me), in dialect stories.

t A transitive use of such intransitive verbs would be like using the English
intransitive verb " learn " for the transitive verb " teach," as in the " I'll learn
you" (for *' ril teach you ") of illiterate speech.

220

LESSON LIX.

[§§276-277

Verb.

Intransitive Use.

Transitive Use.

Degeli. . .

La glacio degelas

The ice thaws

Li gin degeligas per fajro

He thaws it with fire

Droni . . .

La knabino dronis

The girl drowned

La viro sin dronigis

The m,an drowned her

EksploJi. .

Pulvo eksplodas

Gunpowder explodes
Li haltis timigite
He halted in alarm

Li fin eksplodigos

He will explode it

Haiti . . .

Li haltigis la soldatojn

He hatted the soldiers

Lumi . . .

La suno lumas

The sun shines

Li lumigis la lampon

He lighted the lamp

Pasi ....

La tempo pasas

Time passes

Tiel li pasigis la tagon

Thus he passed the day

Pendi . . .

&i pendas de branco

It hangs on a branch

Li gin pendigis de branfio

He hung it on a branch

Soni ....

La saluta pafo sonis

The salute sounded

Oni sonigis la salutan paf on

They sounded the salute

Sonori . .

La sonorilo sonoris

The bell rang

Oni sonorigis la sonorilon

They rang the bell

THE SUFFIX -ER-.

276. The suffix -er- is used to form words expressing
units or component parts of that which is indicated in the
root:

fajrero, spark (of fire). ne|;ero, snowflake.

monero, coin. sablero, grain of sand.

THE PREFIXES BO- AND DUON-.

277. The prefix bo- indicates relationship by marriage.
To indicate half-blood relationship, or step-relationship,
duon- (166) is used:

bopatro, father-in-law. duonpatro, stepfather.

bofratino, sister-in-law. duonfrato, half-brother.

§278] LESSON LIX. 221

CORRESPONDENCE.
278. a. Letters should be dated as indicated in the fol-
lowing:

Bostono, je la 24a de decembro, 1912a.
Nov-Jorko, la 24an decembro, 1912a.
Sirakuzo, 24/XII/i9i2.

b. The usual methods of address are (to strangers and in
business letters): Sinjoro, Sinjorino, Estimata Sinjoro,
Karaj Sinjoroj, Tre estimata Fraiilino, etc. ; (to friends and
relatives) Kara Fraiilino, Karaj Gefratoj, Kara Amiko,
Kara Mario, Patrino mia,*etc.; (to persons whose opin-
ions on some subject are known to agree with those of
the writer) Estimata (Kara) Samideano {follower of the
same idea).

c. Among the more usual forms of conclusion are (to
strangers and in business letters): Tre fidele la via, Tre
vere, Kun granda estimo, Kun plej alta estimo, etc., (to
friends): Kun amika saluto, Kun ciuj bondeziroj, Kun
samideanaj salutoj, Frate la via, etc.

VOCABULAJIY.

adres-0, address. krajon-o, pencil.

apart-a, separate. mend-i, to order (of stores, etc),

bedaur-i, to regret. Nov-Jorko, New York.

cef-a, chief. ■^ numer-o, number (numeral).

do, so, then (p. 32, ftn.). ofic-o, ofjice, employment.

fontan-o, fountain. poSt-o, post (letters, etc.).

hotel-o, hotel. respekt-o, respect.

ink-o, ink. special-a, special.

konven-a, suitable. §tat-o, state (political body),
kovert-o, envelope (for letters). tram-o, tram.

* Placing the possessive adjective after the noun in this way gives an affec-
tionate sense, as in English " Mother mine," etc.

t Cef- is often used in descriptive compounds C167, b), as cefkuiristo, chief
Qiead) cook, chef, cefurbo, chief city, capital, cefangelo, archangel.

222 LESSON Lix. [§278

KELKAJ LETEROJ.

Sirakuzo, la 2aii de marto, 1911.
Kara Amiko,

Sendube vin surprizos ricevi leteron skribitan de mi ce
hotelo en 6i tiu urbo, ne tre malproksime de via propra
soficejo! Via bofrato, kiun mi okaze renkontis iiierau en
la poltoficejo, donis al mi vian adreson. Gis nun, mi
estas tiel okupata ke mi ne havis la tempon e6 por telefoni
al vi. Sed nun mi havas du aii tri minutojn da libera
tempo, kaj mi tuj ekkaptas la okazon por skribi letereton,

lopetante ke vi vespermangu kun mi hodiaii vespere, fie la
hotelo kie, kiel vi vidas, mi logas de antaii unu tago.
(Pardonu, mi petas, ke* mi finas 6i tiun leteron per kra-
jono, sed mi jus eltrovis ke restas neniom plu da inko en
mia fontanplumo.) Venu je la sesa, se tiu horo estas

15 konvena. Bedaiirinde (unfortunately), mi devos forresti
de la hotelo la tutan posttagmezon, pri komercaj aferoj,
alie mi vin renkontus ce la tramvojo, kie haltas la tram-
veturiloj (streetcars). Estos plej bone, mi opinias, ke vi
iru rekte al mia cambro, numero 26, kie mi senprokraste

20 vin renkontos, se mi ne estos efektive jam vin atendanta.
Ni esperu ke la 6efkuiristo preparos al ni bonan mangon!
Mi esperas ke vi malatentos la falantajn negerojn, kaj
nepre venos, responde al mia iomete subita invito, car ni
ja havos multe da komunaj travivajoj por priparoli. Do

25 gis la baldaua revido je la vespermango!

Kun plej amikaj salutoj,

Roberto.

* The word tial may be omitted from the combination tial ke (83), if the mean-
ing is obvious.

§278] LESSON Lix. 223

Boston, 13/VII/1911.
Wilson kaj Jones,

Nov-Jorko. 80

Estimataj Sinjoroj: —

Bonvolu sendi al mi per revenanta posto vian plej
novan prezaron (price-list). Ni baldaii bezonos iujn no-
vajn meblojn per niaj oficejoj, precipe skribtablojn, ta-
blojnkonvenajnporskribmasinoj (ti/pewriters) , kaj specia-35
lajn librujojn, farotajn lau niaj bezonoj. Se viaj prezoj
estas konvenaj, ni sendube volos mendi de vi tian me-
blaron. Kun respekto,

J. F. Smith,
ce Brown kaj Brown. «

Nov-Jorko, 17/VII/1911.
Sinjoro J. ¥. Smith,

ce Brown kaj Brown,
Nov-Jorko.
Estimata Sinjoro: — 45

Ni havas la honoron sendi al vi en aparta koverto
nian plej novan prezaron, al kiu ni petas ke vi donu vian
atenton, precipe al pagoj 15-29. Tie vi trovos priskri-
bitaj niajn plej bonajn oficejajn meblarojn. Ni senpage
metos fiiujn afietitajn meblojn sur la vagonaron, sed kom-50
preneble ni ne pagos la koston de la sendado.

Ni plezure fabrikos specialajn librujojn laii viaj bezonoj,
kaj volonte ricevos viajn ordonojn pri tio. Niaj prezoj
estos kiel eble plej malaltaj.

Esperanto ke la meblaroj priskribitaj en nia prezaro, $5
kune kun la tie-presitaj prezoj, estos plene kontentigaj,
kaj certigante al vi ke ni zorge plenumos 6iun mendon, ni
restas, Tre respekte la viaj,

Wilson kaj Jones.

224 LESSON LX. [§279

Bostono, la 27an Majo.
eoSinjoro B. F. Brown,

Sirakuzo, Nov-Jorka Stato.
Kara Sinjoro: —

Vian adreson ni dankas al niaj komunaj amikoj Sin-

joroj Miller kaj White, kaj per ci tio ni permesas al ni

feproponi al vi niajn servojn por la vendado de tiaj infan-

ludiloj, kiajn vi fabrikas. Ni havas bonegajn montrajn

fenestrojn (show-windows), en nia butiko, preskaii meze

de la fiefstrato en la urbo, kaj en nia butiko trovigas sufifie

da grandaj vitramebloj (show-cases). Tial ni povus tre

70oportune administri tian aferon. Ni multe gojos se vi

respondos kiel eble plej baldatt, sciigante al ni kiom da

procento vi donos, kaj kiajn arangojn vi volus fari. Ni

certigas al vi ke en 6iu okazo ni penos fari nian eblon por

via plej bona intereso.

76 Kun alta estimo,

D. Rose.

LESSON LX.
SOME TRANSITIVE VERBS.

279. Some transitive verbs have English meanings
which do not differ in form from the intransitive English
verbs to which they are related (conversely to the use
explained in 275). In Esperanto the suffix -ig- (232),
or a different root, must be used when an intransitive
meaning is desired. Following are the more common verbs
of this character, together with examples of the intransi-
tive use of several of them :

balanci, to balance. fini, to end, to finish.

etendi, to extend, to expand. fermi, to close, to shut.

§280] LESSON Lx. 225

fleksi, to bend, to flex. ruli, to roll, (a wheel, ball, etc.).

hejti, to heat. skui, to shake.

klini, to incline, to bend. streci, to stretch.

kolekti, to gather, -to collect. svingi, to swing.

komenci, to begin, to commence. Sanceli, to cause to vacillate.

mezuri, to measure. Sa-nfi, to change.

montri, to show. Siri, to tear.

movi, to move. turni, to turn.

paSti, to pasture, to feed. veki, to wake.

renversi, to upset, to overturn. verSi, to pour.

rompi, to break. volvi, to roll (around something).

La laboro nun finifas, the work is now coming to an end.

La glavo fleksi|;is, the sword bent.

La folioj disvolvigas, the leaves unroll (develop).

Ciu kutimo langi|;os, every custom will change.

La vintro jam komencigas, the winter is already beginning.

Mi vekigos je la sesa, / shall awake at six (o'clock).

La montrilo Sanceligis, the indicator trembled (vacillated).

Vasta ebenajo etendifis antaii li, a vast plain extended before him.

ELISION.

280. Elision is not common, and its use in writing as
well as in speaking is best avoided. It occurs most fre-
quently in poetry.

a. The -a of the article may be elided before a word be-
ginning with a vowel, or after a preposition ending in a
vowel:

" L' espero, 1' obstino kaj la pacienco."
" De 1' montoj riveretoj fluas."
" Kaj kantas tra 1' pura aero."

b. The final -o of a noun may be elided in poetry. The
original accent of the noun remains unchanged:

" Ho, mia kor', ne batu maltrankvile."
" Sur ia kampo la rozet'. "

226 LESSON Lx. [§§281-284

c. The final -e of an adverb is very rarely elided (except
in the expression dank' al, which occurs in prose as well as
in poetry) :

" Ke povu mi foj' je eterno ekdormi ! "

Dank' al vi, mi sukcesis, thanks to you, I succeeded.

THE PREFIX EKS-.

281. The prefix eks- is used to form words expressing a
previous incumbent of a position, or removal from such
position:

eksprezidanto, ex-president.

eksrego, ex-king.

eksigi, to put out of office, to discharge.

eksigi, to withdraw from one's office, to resign.

THE PREFIX PRA-.

282. The prefix pra- is used to form words expressing
precedence in the line of descent, or general remoteness in
past time:

praavo, great grandfather. prapatroj, forefathers, ancestors.

pranepo, great grandson. pratempa, primeval.

THE SUFFIXES -6 J- AND -NJ-.

283. The suffix -cj- is used to form affectionate diminu-
tives, from the first syllable or syllables of masculine names
or terms of address. The suffix -nj- forms similar fem-
inine diminutives:

Jo£jo, Johnnie, Joe. Manjo, May, Mamie.

Pa£jo. Papa. Panjo, Mamma.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

284. National systems of weights and measures trans-
lated into international form (as mejlo, mile, funto, pound)

§285] LESSON Lx. 227

cannot convey a very definite meaning to one not familiar
with the particular system used. Consequently the met-
ric system (already used by scientists everywhere and by
the general public in many countries) is adopted for the
international system of weights and measures:

Length and Surface.
milimetro, millimeter (.0394 inch).
centimetro, centimeter (.3937 inch),
decimetro, decimeter (3.937 inches).
metro, meter (39.37 inches).
dekametro, dekameter (393.7 inches).
hektometro, hektometer (328 feet 1 inch).
kilometro, kilometer (3280 feet 10 inches; .62137 mile).
kvadrata metro, square meter (1550 square inches).
hektaro, hektare (2.471 acres).

Weight.
gramo, gram (15.432 grains avoirdupois).
dekagramo, dekagram (.3527 ounce avoirdupois).
hektogramo, hektogram (3.5274 ounce avoirdupois).
kilogramo, kilogram (2.2046 pounds avoirdupois).

Capacity.
decilitre, deciliter (6.1022 cubic inches; .845 gill).
litre, liter (.908 quart, dry measure; 1.0567 quart, liquid).
dekalitre, dekaliter (9.08 quart, dry measure; 2.6417 gallons).
hektolitro, hektoliter (2 bushels 3.35 pecks; 26.417 gallons).
kilolitre, kiloliter (1.308 cubic yards; 264.17 gallons).

THE INTERNATIONAL MONEY SYSTEM.

285. Names of national coins translated into interna-
tional form (as dolaro, dollar, cendo, cent) cannot convey
a very definite meaning to persons not familiar with
these coins. Consequently the system devised for interna-
tional use (not for actual coins, but for calculation and
price quotations) is based upon a unit called the speso.

228

LESSON LX.

[§286

The multiples of this unit are the spesdeko (10 spesoj),
spescento (100 spesoj), and spesmilo (1000 spesoj). Ten
spesmiloj have approximately the value of a five-dollar
gold piece, twenty marks, twenty-five francs, one pound
sterling, etc. The spesmilo, equivalent to about $0.4875
in the money of the United States and Canada, is the unit
commonly used. (To reduce dollars to spesmiloj, multiply
by 2.051.)

ABBREVIATIONS.

286. The following abbreviations are often used (for
those of the ordinals see p. 107, ftn., and for those of the
metric system see any English dictionary) :

Dro., Doktoro, Dr.
Fino., Frafilino, Miss.
Pro., Profesoro, Prof.
Sro., Sinjoro, Mr.
Sino., Sinjorino, Mrs.
Ko., K-io., Kompanio, Co.
No., N-ro., Numero, No.
&, kaj, &.

Sm., spesmilo (j).

Sd., spesdeko(j).

k. t. p., kaj tiel plu, and so forth.

k. c, kaj ceteraj, etc.

k. sim., kaj simila(j), et. sim.

t. e., tic estas, i.e.

e., ekzemple, e.g.

p.s., postskribajo, P.S.

Vocabulary.

abon-i, to subscribe to, take.
aparat-o, apparatus.
aiitomat-a, automatic.
bov-o, ox.

dimensi-o, dimension.
ekzempl-o, example.
fokus-o, focus.
fotograf-i, to photograph.
funkci-i, to function, to work,
kamer-o, camera.

led-o, leather.

metal-o, metal.

moment-o, moment.

negativ-o, negative.

objektlv-o, lens, objective.

original-o, original.

plat-o, plate (photographic, etc.).

prov-i, to try.*

reklam-i, to advertise.

stre6-i, to stretch (trans.).

* Cf. the difference between provi, to try in the sense of testing, making an
essay or endeavor, peni, to try in the sense of taking pains or making an effort,
and jugi, iotryia^ judicial sense.

§286J LESSON Lx. 229

PRI LA KAMERO.

Bostono, 12/XI/1910.
Brown kaj Ko.,

Nov-Jorko.
Sinjoroj: —

Vidinte vian reklamon en gazeto al kiu mi abonas, mi 5

slcribas por peti ke vi sendu al mi priskribajon de via

kamero nomita " La Infaneto," kiun eble mi deziros provi.

Bonvolu ankau sendi dekduonon da platoj, 6x9 centi-

metrojn, por kiu mi 6i kune* sendas spesmilon kaj

duonon. 10

Kun respekto,

J. C. Smith.

Nov-Jorko, 18an novembro, 1910.
Kara Sinjoro: —

Respondante al via estimata letero de la 12a, ni donas is
6i sube mallongan priskribajon de nia bonega fotografilo
nomita " La Infaneto."

" La Infaneto " kamero ha vis neesperitan sukceson, kaj
estas vendita po miloj da ekzempleroj. Cie oni unuvoce
latidas gian malgrandan kaj tamen bonegan konstruon, 30
kaj ankatt gian firman samtempe facilan funkciadon. Cri
ne estas pli granda ol monujo, tial gi ne bezonas pli multe
da spaco ol tiu, kaj povas esti portata kaj uzata treege
konvene.

La dimensioj de la fermita kamero estas 8 x 5 x 6.5 25
centimetroj. La pezo, kun objektivo, tri platingoj, kaj
malbrila {ground) vitro, estas 365 gramoj. " La Infa-
neto " estas konstruita tute el metalo, kaj kovrita de
bonega bovledo. Kiam oni malfermas la aparaton, la

* The particle 6i (used with tiu, tio, ties, 6iu, cio) may also be used with cer-
tain adverbs, as ci sube, here below, ci supre, here above, £i kune, herewith, etc.

230 LESSON LX. L§286

soobjektivo samtempe enfokusigas, tiamaniere ke la kamero
estas preta por uzado post unu sekundo, car la objektiv-
fermilo (shutter) estas ciam strecita. Sekve: neniaj pre-
pai'adoj, nenia prokrasto je la ekfotografado.

Ija negativoj estas klaraj gis la bordo, kaj tial konvenaj

35 por pligrandigo. Cetere, oni scias ke bona pligrandigo

ofte pli kontentigas ol malgranda originalo. Precipe 6e

promenoj kaj vojagoj oni tial volonte preferas la mal-

grandan " Infaneton," por poste pligrandigi la negativojn.

Por la pligrandigo ni fabrikas specialajn taglum-pli-

40grandigajn aparatojn, Ides prezoj estas malaltaj (vidu en

nia prezaro).

Ni ne sangis la konstruon de "La Infaneto " de post
1909, car gis nun gi estas 6iurilate kontentiga. Sole la
rapideca reguligo de la momenta {instantaneous) fermilo
45 estas plibonigita, 6ar ni gin fabrikas kun speciala atito-
mata fermilo, kiu estas arangita por malfermoj dauraj
{time exposures), kaj momentaj, je unu sekundo gis unu
centono da sekundo.

Esperante ke ni baldaii ricevos mendon de vi, kaj certi-
sogante al vi ke ni tre zorge plenumos iun ajn mendon, ni
restas.

Tre respekte la viaj,

Brown & Ko.

PerC.

VOCABULARY.

ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY.

The following vocabulary includes all roots used in the preceding
Lessons, all primary words of the language, and a large number of
additional roots (to facilitate original composition). No attempt
has been made, however, to include all of the roots in the language,
for which an Esperanto-English Dictionary should be consulted.

References are to sections, unless the page (p.) is given. For
other parts of speech than those indicated under each root or pri-
mary word, see Word Formation, ii6, 120, 159, 171. See also the
references given under each prefix and suffix. For formation of
compound words, see i6o, 167, 176, 184. The following abbrevia-
tions are used: adj. = adjective; adv. = adverb: conj. = conjunc-
tion; intrans. = intransitive; prep. = preposition; trans. = transi-
tive; — = repetition of the word.

abel-o, bee.

abi-o, fir.

abiturient-o, bachelor of arts (A.

B.).
abomen-a, abominable.
abon-i, to subscribe to, take

(magazine, etc.).
abrikot-o, apricot,
acer-o, maple (tree).
acid-a, acid, sour.
-ac-, derogatory suffix (272).
acet-i, to buy.

-ad-, suffix indicating duration
(218).

adiaii, (adv. and interjection),
farewell, good-bye (171, 273).
adjektiv-o, adjective.

administr-i, to administer, to
manage.

admir-i, to admire.

admon-i, to exhort, admonish.

ador-i, to worship, adore.

adres-o, address (on letters, etc.).

adverb-o, adverb.

advokat-o, lawyer, barrister.

234

ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY.

aer-o, air.

afabl-a, affable, amiable.

afer-o, affair, matter, thing,
cause.

afi§-o, handbill, placard, poster.

afrank-i, to. frank (letters), pre-
pay; -ite, post-paid.

Afrik-o, Africa.

ag-i, to act, perform action.

agac-i, to set on edge (of teeth).

agent-o, agent.

agit-i, to agitate.

agl-o, eagle.

agoni-o, agony.

agrabl-a, agreeable, pleasant.

al-o, age.

ajn (adv.), ever (236).

-aj-, suffix forming concrete words
(227).

akademi-D, academy.

akcel-i (trans.), to accelerate,
hasten.

akcent-o, accent, stress.

akcept-i, to accept, receive, wel-
come.

akcident-o, accident.

akir-i, to acquire.

akompan-i, to accompany.

akr-a, sharp, acute, shrill.

akrid-o, grasshopper.

aks-o, axis, axle.

akt-o, act (of a play).

aktiv-a, active (grammatical).

aktor-o, actor (player).

akurat-a, accurate, exact.

akuz-i, to accvise.

akuzativ-o, accusative.

akv-o, water.

akvarel-o, water-color painting.

akvari-o, aquarium.

al (prep.), to, toward (46, 160,
251, 252)-

alaud-o, lark (bird).

ale-o, avenue, walk, path (of
garden, park, etc.).

Aleksandri-o, Alexandria.

Aleksandr-o, Alexander.

alfabet-o, alphabet.

Alfred-o, Alfred.

algebr-o, algebra.

ali-a, other.

alk-o, elk.

alkohol-o, alcohol.

alkov-o, alcove, recess.

almanak-o, almanac.

almenau (adv.), at least (66).

almoz-o, alms; — ulo, beggar.

alt-a, high, tall.

altar-o, altar.

alud-i, to allude to.

alumet-o, match (for fire).

am-i, to love.

amas-o, crowd, throng, mass.

ambau (pronoun), both (of two
objects naturally in pairs, or
of persons or things assumed
or already known to be thus
grouped) (238).

ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY.

235

ambos-o, anvil.

amel-o, starch.

Amerik-o, America.

amfibi-a, amphibious.

amfiteatr-o, amphitheatre.

amxk-o, friend.

amindum-i, to woo, make love.

ampleks-o, extent, dimension.

amuz-i, to amuse.

-an-, suffix denoting membership,

etc. (145).
analiz-i, to analyse.
ananas-o, pineapple.
anas-o, duck.
anekdot-o, anecdote.
Angl-o, Englishman,
angul-o, angle, corner,
an^el-o, angel.
anim-o, soul.
ankaii (adv.), also.
ankorau (adv)., still, yet (p. 112,

ftn.; see also p. 124, ftn.).
ankr-o, anchor.
anonc-i, to announce.
ans-o, latch, door-handle.
anser-o, goose.
anstatau (prep.), instead of (98,

p. 63, ftn., 159).

antau (prep.), before (89, 90, 120,
159, 160), antaii ol (conj.), 97,
98.

antikv-a, ancient, antique (p.
128, ftn.).

antilop-o, antelope.

antipati-o, antipathy.

aparat-o, apparatus.

apart-a, separate.

apartament-o, apartment, suite
(of rooms).

aparten-i, to belong.

apati-o, apathy.

apenau (adv.), scarcely, hardly.

aper-i, to appear.

apetit-o, appetite.

aplaiid-i, to applaud.

aplomb-o, assurance, self-com-
mand.

apog-i, to lean, to rest (upon).

apologi-o, apology, vindication.

apotek-o, pharmacy, drugstore,
chemist's shop.

april-o, April.

aprob-i, to approve.

apud (prep.), near to, close by

(120, 159).
-ar-, suffix forming collectives

(126).
Arab-o, Arab,
arane-o, spider.
arang-i, to arrange,
arb-o, tree.

arbitraci-i, to arbitrate,
ardez-o, slate (stone).
aren-o, arena,
arest-i, to arrest.
argil-o, clay.
argument-i, to argue,
ar^ent-o, silver (metal).

236

ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY.

arfiitektur^o, architecture.

Arfiimed-o, Archimedes.

ari-o, tune, air (music).

Aristejd-o, Aristeides.

aristokrat-o, aristocrat.

Aristotel-o, Aristotle.

aritmetik-o, arithmetic.

ark-o, arc.

arkad-o, arcade.

arm-i, to arm.

arme-o, army.

armoraci-o, horse-radish.

arogant-a, arrogant.

arom-o, aroma, fragrance.

art-o, art.

artik-o, joint.

artikol-o, article (grammatical or
literary) .

Artur-o, Arthur.

asekur-i, to insure (with a com-
pany).

asoci-o, association (organiza-
tion).

asparag-o, asparagus.

aspekt-o, aspect, appearance.

astr-o, heavenly body, star.

atak-i, to attack.

atend-i, to wait, wait for, expect.

atent-a, attentive (p. 216, ftn.).

atest-i, to attest, give witness,
certify.

ating-i, to attain, reach.

atlas-o, satin.

atlet-o, athlete.

atmosfer-o, atmosphere.

atribut-o, attribute.

au (conj.), or, either (p. 32, ftn.).

aiid-i, to hear.

august-o, August.

aflskult-i, to listen (p. 216, ftn.).

Aflstrali-o, Australia.

automat-a, automatic.

autor-o, author.

autun-o, autumn.

av-o, grandfather.

avar-a, avaricious, miserly.

avel-o, hazel-nut.

aven-o, oats.

avert-i, to warn, caution.

avid-a, eager.

aviz-i, to give notice.

azen-o, ass, donkey.

Azi-o, Asia.

azot-o, nitrogen.

B.

babil-i, to chatter, babble.

bagatel-o, trifle, bagatelle.

bal-o, ball (dance).

bak-i, to bake.

bala-i, to sweep (a floor, etc.).

balanc-i (trans.'), to balance,

poise; — i la kapon, to nod

the head,
baldau (adv.), soon,
balen-o, whale.
ban-i (trans.), to bathe.

ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY.

237

banan-o, banana.

bandag-i, to bandage.

bank-o, bank (financial).

bankrot-i, to become bankrupt,
fail.

bant-o, bow (of ribbon).

bar-i (trans.), to bar, to ob-
struct.

barakt-i, to wrestle, struggle.

barb-o, beard.

barbar-o, barbarian.

barel-o, barrel.

bariton-o, barytone.

bas-o, bass (voice).

baston-o, stick.

bat-i, to beat.

batal-i, to fight, battle.

batat-o, sweet potato.

bedaur-i, to regret.

bek-o, beak, bill.

bel-a, beautiful, handsome.

belg-o, Belgian.

ben-i, to bless.

benk-o, bench.

ber-o, berry.

best-o, animal, beast.

bet-o, beet.

bezon-i, to need, want.

bibliotek-o, library.

bicikl-o, bicycle.

bien-o, land, property, estate.

bier-o, beer.

bifstek-o, beefsteak.

bild-o, picture, image.

bilet-o, ticket, note; bank-o,

bank-note, bill,
bird-o, bird,
bis (adv.), once more, a second

time, encore,
biskvit-o, biscuit.
blank-a, white.

blek-i, to neigh, bleat, give its

cry (of any animal).
blind-a, blind,
blov-i, to blow.
blu-a, blue (color).
bluz-o, blouse.

bo-, prefix expressing relationship
by marriage (277).

boat-o, boat.

boj-i, to bark (of dogs).

bol-i (intrans.), to boil.

bombon-o, bonbon, sweet.

bon-a, good; — veni, to welcome

(p. 216, ftn.).
bor-i, to bore (holes),
bord-o, shore, bank, edge (of

rivers, etc.).
Boston-o, Boston,
bot-o, boot,
botel-o, bottle.
bov-o, ox; — ajo, beef; — idajo,

veal; — viro, bull.
brak-o, arm (of the body),
branfi-o, branch, bough,
brand-o, brandy.

238

ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY.

brasik-o, cabbage; florbrasiko,

cauliflower.
brav-a, brave.
bret-o, shelf, bracket.
brid-o, bridle (of harness).
brik-o, brick, tile.
bril-i, to shine (ii6).
Brit-o, Briton,
brod-i, to embroider.
bronz-o, bronze,
bros-i, to brush.
bro§ur-o, pamphlet, brochure.
brov-o, eyebrow,
bru-o, noise.
brul-i (intrans.), to burn

(275).
brun-a, brown.
brut-o, cattle, dumb animal.
bub-o, street arab, gamin.
buc-i, to slaughter, butcher.
buf-o, toad,
buk-o, buckle (metal).
buked-o, bouquet.
bukl-o, curl, ringlet (of hair).
bulb-o, onion, bulb.
<)ulgar-o, Bulgarian.
Wlk-o, roll (bread).
bulvard-o, boulevard.
burton-o, bud, young shoot.
bu§-o, mouth.
buter-o, butter.
butik-o, shop, store.
buton-o, button.

cel-i, to aim, have as purpose or

goal.
celeri-o, celery.
cend-o, cent (coin).
cent, hundred (142).
centigram-o, centigram (284).
centilitr-o, centiliter (284).
centimetr-o, centimeter (284).
centr-o, center.
cerb-o, brain,
cert-a, certain, sure.
cerv-o, stag, deer,
ceter-a, remaining.
ci (pronoun), thou (p. 15, ftn.,

40).
cidoni-o, quince,
cifer-o, cipher.
cigar-o, cigar.
cigared-o, cigarette.
cign-o, swan.
cilindr-o, cylinder.
cinam-o, cinnamon,
cindr-o, ashes.
cir-o, blacking (for shoes),
cirkonstanc-o, circumstance,
cirkuler-o, circular (letter).
Cirus-o, Cyrus,
cit-i, to quote.
citron-o, lemon,
civiliz-i, to civilize.
col-o, inch (measure).

ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY.

239

£agren-i (trans.), to grieve, vex,
annoy.

cambr-o, room.

cap-o, cap.

£apel-o, hat.

£apitr-o, chapter (of book).

car (conj.), because, since (83).

carm-a, charming, delightful.

carnir-o, hinge.

cas-i, to hunt (game or wild ani-
mals).

ce (prep.), at, in the house or
presence of (125, 160).

£ef-a, chief, principal, head (p.
221, ftn.).

cek-o, cheque.

cemiz-o, shirt, chemise.

cen-o, chain (for watch, etc.).

ceriz-o, cherry.

ces-i (intrans.), to cease, leave off
(275)-

6eval-o, horse; — viro, stallion.

ci {adv.), expresses proximity (60,
66, p. 229, ftn.).

6ia, of every kind (177).

cial (adv.), for every reason (188).

ciam (adv.), always (187).

cie (adv.), everywhere (182).

£iel (adv.), in every way (193).

£ieI-o, heaven, sky.

cies (pronoun, possessive), every-
body's (174).

cifon-o, rag.

£io (pronoun), everything, all
(233).

£iom (adv^, all (194).

£irkau (prep.), around, round-
about (89, 120, 159, 160).

ciu (pronoun and adj.), every
one, each (173).

-cj-, suffix forming affectionate
diminutives (283).

£okolad-o, chocolate.

cu (adv.), whether (when trans-
lated) (30, 66, a, p. 110, ftn.).

D.

da (prep.), of (after quantitative

noun or adv.) (99, loi, 103).
daktil-o, date (fruit).
Damokl-o, Damocles,
dan-o, Dane.
danc-i, to dance.
danger-o, danger.
dank-i, to thank.
dat-o, date (chronological),
daur-i (intrans.), to continue,

last.
de (prep.), of, from, by (49, 89,

100, 160, 169, 170).
dec-i, to be proper, decent; ne

decas ke vi iru, it is not proper

for you to go.
decembr-o, December,
decld-i, to decide.
decigram-o, decigram (284).
decilitr-o, deciliter (284)

240

ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY.

decimetr-o, decimeter (284).
defend-i, to defend.
degel-i (intrans.), to thaw (275).
dejor-i, to be on duty (of officer,

attendant, etc.).
dek (adj.), ten (136).
dekagram-o, dekagram (284).
dekalitr-o, dekaliter (284).
dekametr-o, dekameter (284).
deklam-i, to declaim, recite.
dekstr-a, right (not left).
deleg-i, to delegate.
delikat-a, delicate, dainty, nice.
demand-i, to ask, inquire.
dens-a, dense, thick, close.
dent-o, tooth.
depe§-o, a dispatch.
des (adv.), the more (used with

pU, 84).
desert-o, dessert.
detal-o, detail.
detru-i, to destroy.
dev-i, to have to, must (247).
dezert-o, desert, waste.
dezir-i, to desire.
Di-o, God.
diamant-o, diamond,
difekt-i, to damage, spoil,
diferenc-a, different.
difin-i, to define, to destine.
dik-a, thick, corpulent.
dikt-i, to dictate (letters, etc.)
diligent-a, diligent.

dimanc-o, Sunday.

dimensi-o, dimension.

Diogen-o, Diogenes.

diplom-o, diploma.

diplomat-o, diplomat.

dir-i, to say (77).

direkt-i, to direct, guide, man-
age.

dis-, prefix expressing separation
(245)-

diskut-i, to discuss.

distanc-o, distance.

disting-i, to distinguish.

distr-i, to distract, take away the
attention.

diven-i, to guess.

divers-a, varied, diverse, differ-
ent.

divid-i (trans.), to divide.

do, consequently, then, so (p. 32,

ftn.).
doktor-o, doctor.
dolar-o, dollar.
dolc-a, sweet, pleasant.
dolor-o, pain, ache.
dom-o, house.

domat-o, pity, regrettable affair,
don-i, to give.

donac-i, to make a gift, present,
dorlot-i, to caress, fondle, pet.
dorm-i, to sleep.
dorn-o, thorn.
dors-o, back (of the body),
dot-i, to endow.

ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY.

241

drap-o, cloth.
drog-o, drug.

dron-i (intrans.), to drown (275).
du (adj.), two (136)
dub-i, to doubt.

dum (prep, and con].), during,

while (p. 63, ftn., 96, 120, 159).

dung-i (trans.), to hire (persons).

E.

eben-a, even, flat, level.

-ebl-, suffix expressing possibility
(161, 162).

ebri-a, inebriate, intoxicated.

-ec-, suffix forming abstracts
(202).

ec (adv.), even.

eduk-i, to bring up, educate.

edz-o, husband, married man.

efekt-o, effect.

efektiv-a, real, actual.

efik-i, to be efficacious, act (on),
produce a result.

-eg-, suffix forming augmentatives
(122).

egal-a, equal.

Egipt-o, Egypt.

efi-o, echo.

-ej-, suffix forming words indicat-
ing place (ill).

ek-, prefix expressing suddenness
or beginning (206).

eks-, prefix expressing former in-
cumbency (281).

ekscit-i, to excite.
eksperiment-i, to experiment,
eksplod-i (intrans.), to explode,
ekster (prep.), outside of (120,

121).
ekzamen-i, to examine, test.
ekzempl-o, example.
ekzempler-o, copy (of book or

magazine).
ekzerc-i (trans.), to exercise,
ekzil-i, to exile, banish
ekzist-i, to exist.
el (prep.), out of, of, out (75, 106,

138, 197, P- 115, ftn., p. 118,

ftn., 264, c).
elekt-i, to choose,
elektr-a, electric,
elokvent-a, eloquent,
-em-, suffix expressing propensity

or inclination (192).
eminent-a, eminent.
en (prep.), in (89, 160), into (46).
energi-o, energy.
entrepren-i, to undertake,
entuziasm-o, enthusiasm.
enu-i, to be wearied, be bored

(p. 206, ftn.).
envi-i, to envy.
epok-o, epoch, period, time.
-er-, suffix expressing a compo-
nent part (276).
erar-i, to err, make a mistake,
escept-i, to except (266).
esper-i, to hope.

242

ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULAKT.

esplor-i, to investigate, explore.

esprim-i, to express.

est-i, to be (109).

establ-i, to establish.

estim-i, to esteem.

esting-i, to extinguish.

-estr-, suffix expressing leadership

or authority (253).
-et-, suffix forming diminutives

(198).
etaf-o, story (of a house) ; tere-

tago, ground floor; unua etago,

second story.

etend-i (trans.), to extend,
lengthen, widen.

etern-a, eternal.
Europ-o, Europe.
evangeli-o, gospel, evangel.
evit-i, to avoid, shun.
evoluci-o, evolution.

fab-o, bean (leguminous fruit).

fabel-o, story, tale.

fabl-o, fable.

fabrik-i, to manufacture.

facil-a, easy.

faden-o, thread.

fajf-i, to whistle.

fajr-o, fire.

fak-o, department, specialty.

fakt-o, fact.

fal-i, to fall.

fald-i, to fold.

fals-i, to falsify, forge, debase.

fam-o, fame, renown,, rumor.

famili-o, family.

familiar-a, familiar, accustomed.

fand-i (trans.), to smelt, fuse
(metals, etc.).

fanfaron-i, to boast, vaunt one-
self, brag.

fantom-o, phantom, ghost.

far-i, to make, do, render.

faraon-o, pharaoh (Egyptian

ruler).
farm-i, to farm (as a tenant).
farmaci-o, pharmacy (knowledge

of the use of drugs).
fart-i, to be in (good or bad)

health.
farun-o, flour,
fask-o, bundle, bunch,
fason-o, cut, mode, fashion.
fatal-a, fatal, predestined.

fauk-o, jaw (literal and figura-
tive).
favor-a, favorable.
fazeol-o, bean (garden bean).
fe-o, fairy, fay; — ino, fairy.
febr-o, fever.
februar-o, February.
fel-o, skin, hide (of animals).
felic-a, happy,
femur-o, thigh,
fend-i (trans.), to split.
fenestr-o, window.

ESPEEANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY,

243

fer-o, iron; — vojo, railway.
ferdek-o, deck (of siiip).
ferm-i (trans.), to close, shut.
fervor-o, zeal, fervor,
fest-i, to celebrate.
festen-o, banquet.
fi {interjection), fie! (273).
flakr-o, cab.

fian£-o, betrothed man, fiance.
fid-i, to rely upon, trust (p. 206,
. ftn.).

fldel-a, faithful, loyal,
fier-a, proud, haughty (p. 206,

ftn.)..
fll-o, son.

filozof-o, philosopher,
fin-i {trans.), to finish, end.

fingr-o, finger; dika fingro,
thumb; montra fingro, index
finger; longa fingro, middle
finger; ringa fingro, ring-
finger; malgranda fingro, little
finger.

firm-a, firm, steady.

fi§-o, fish.

fizik-o, physics, physical science.

flag-o, flag, banner, small stand-
ard.

flank-o, side.

flar-i {trans.), to smell, scent.

flav-a, yellow.

fleks-i {trans.), to bend, flex.

flik-i, to patch.

flor-o, flower (116).

fiu-i, to flow.

flug-i, to fly.

fluid-a, fluid, liquid.

foj-o, time, occasion (127).

fojn-o, hay.

fokus-o, focus.

foli-o, leaf.

fond-i, to found, establish.

font-o, spring (of water), fount.

fontan-o, fountain (artificial).

for {adv.), away (71).

forges-i, to forget.

fork-o, fork.

form-o, shape, form.

formik-o, ant.

forn-o, stove.

fort-a, strong.

fos-i, to dig.

fotograf-i, to photograph

frag-o, strawberry.

frak-o, evening dress (for men).

frakas-i, to shatter, break to

pieces.
framb-o, raspberry.
franc-o. Frenchman.

frand-i, to be fond of sweets, be

an epicure.
fran|-o, fringe.
frap-i, to knock, strike.
frat-o, brother.

fraul-o, bachelor, unmarried man.
fraz-o, sentence, phrase.
Frederik-o, Frederick.

244

ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY.

fremd-a, foreign.

frenez-a, crazy, mad.

fre§-a, fresh, new.

fripon-o, rogue, rascal, knave.

frit-i (trans.), to fry.

fromag:-o, cheese.

frost-o, frost.

frot-i, to rub.

fru-a, early.

frukt-o, fruit.

frunt-o, forehead.

fulm-o, lightning.

fum-i, to smoke.

fund-o, bottom.

fundament-o, foundation, base.

funebr-o, mourning.

fung-o, mushroom.

funkci-i, to function, work.

funt-o, pound.

furioz-a, furious, raging.

fu§-i, to bungle.

fut-o, foot (measure).

G.

gaj-a, gay, merry.

gajn-i, to gain.

galeri-o, gallery.

galop-i, to gallop.

gant-o, glove.

gard-i, to guard, watch over.

gas-o, gas.

gast-o, guest.

gazet-o, gazette, magazine.
ge-, prefix indicating both sexes

together (271).
general-o, general (military).
genu-o, knee; — fleksi, to kneel,
geometri-o, geometry.
german-o, German.
Gertrud-o, Gertrude.
gi£et-o, wicket, ticket-window,

turnstile.
girland-o, garland, wreath.
glaci-o, ice; — ajo, an ice (food),
glad-i, to iron (linen, etc.).
glas-o, tumbler, glass.
glat-a, smooth, polished, flat,
glav-o, sword.
glit-i, to glide, slide.
glob-o, globe,
glor-o, glory.
glu-o, glue,
glut-i, to swallow,
gorg-o, throat.
graci-a, graceful.
grad-o, grade, degree.
graf-o, count; — lando, county,
gram-o, gram (284).
gramatik-o, grammar.
grand-a, great, large, big.
gras-o, fat.
gratul-i, to congratulate (p. 206,

ftn.).
grav-a, important, serious, grave,
gravit-i, to gravitate.
grek-o, Greek.

ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY.

245

gren-o, grain (wheat, corn, etc.).
grimp-i, to climb up, creep up.
grinc-i, to grind, gnasii.
griz-a, gray.
grup-o, group.

gurd-o, hurdy-gurdy, barrel or-
gan,
gust-o, taste.
gut-i, to drip,
gvid-i, to guide.

farden-o, garden.

gem-i, to groan.

|en-i, to disturb, incommode.

|eneral-a, general, common.

|entil-a, courteous, polite.

gi (pronoun), it (32, 37, 42, 274).

gis (prep.), as far as, until (46,

89).
goj-i, to rejoice, be glad (116, p.

206, ftn.).
|;u-i, to enjoy, find pleasure in.
gust-a, exact, just (p. 198, ftn.).

H.

hajl-o, hail (frozen rain).
hak-i,to chop, hack; — ilo, axe.
halt-i (intrans.), to halt, stop.
har-o, a hair.
haiit-o, skin (human).
hav-i, to have.
haven-o, harbor, port.

hazard-o, chance, hazard.

hebre-o, Hebrew.

hejm-o, home.

hejt-i (trans.), to heat (a place).

hektar-o, hektare (284).

hektogram-o, hektogram (284).

hektolitr-o, hektoliter (284).

hektometr-o, hektometer (284).

hel-a, bright, clear.

help-i, to help, aid, assist.

herb-o, grass, herb.

hero-o, hero.

hezit-i, to hesitate.

hieraii (adv.), yesterday (93,

171).
Hieron-o, Hiero.
hipokrit-i, to play the hypocrite,
hirund-o, swallow (bird).
hispan-o, Spaniard.
histori-o, history.
ho (interjection), ho, oh (273).
hodiau (adv.), today (93, 171).
Holand-o, Holland,
hom-o, human being (p. 154,

ftn.).
honest-a, honest.
honor-i, to honor,
hont-i, to be ashamed (p. 206,

ftn.).
hor-o, hour (185).
horizont-o, horizon,
horizontal-a, horizontal,
horlog-o, clock; polhorlogo,

watch.

246

ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY.

hotel-o, hotel.

humil-a, humble.

humor-o, humor, temper.

hund-o, dog.

hura! (interjection), hurrah!

fiemi-o, chemistry.
fiin-o, Chinaman.
fior-o, choir.

I.

ia, any kind of (208).
ial (adv.), for any reason (213).
iam (adv.), ever, at any time,
once (212).

-id-, sufjix indicating descendant
or young of (207).

ide-o, idea.

ideal-o, ideal.

ident-a, identical.

idiom-o, idiom.

idiot-o, idiot.

ie (adv.), somewhere (209).

iel (adv.), somehow (216).

ies (pronoun, possessive), some-
body's (204).

-ig-, suffix forming causative verbs
(214,239,275).

ignor-i, to ignore.

-i^-, sufjix forming inchoative
and intransitive verbs (232,
239, 279)-

-il-, suffix forming namss of in

struments (63).
ili (pronoun), they (32, 37, 42).
ilustr-i, to illustrate.
iluzi-o, illusion, delusion.
imag-i, to imagine, fancy,
imit-i, to imitate.
imperi-o, empire.
implik-i, to implicate,
impost-o, tax, impost,
impres-i, to impress.
impuls-o, impulse.
-in-, suffix forming feminines (59).
incit-i, to incite, arouse, provoke.

-ind-, suffix expressing worth or

merit (154, p. 206, ftn.).
indian-o, Indian (American).

indiferent-a, indifferent, uncon-
cerned, unimportant (p. 162,
ftn.).

industri-o, industry (trade, busi-
ness).

infan-o, child.

infekt-i, to infect, contaminate.

influ-i, to influence.

inform-i, to give information.

-ing-, suffix expressing a holder or

container (237).
ingenier-o, engineer,
ink-o, ink.
insekt-o, insect,
insist-i, to insist.
inspir-i, to inspire.
instru-i, to instruct, teach.

ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY.

247

insul-o, island.

insult-i, to insult.

inteligent-a, intelligent.

intenc-i, to intend.

inter {prep.), between, among

(85, 89, 160).
interes-i (trans.), to interest (p.

206, ftn.).
intermit-i, to be intermittent.
intern-a, internal; — e, inside,
interpret-i, to interpret.
intim-a, intimate.
invit-i, to invite.
io (pronoun), something (233).
Jom (adv.), some, a certain

amount; iom post iom, little

by little (217).
ir-i, to go.
-ist-, suffix indicating profession,

etc. (172, p. 154, ftn.).
ital-o, Italian.

iu (pronoun), sovae one, a certain
(one) (203).

ja (adv.), indeed, in fact (215).

jak-o, jacket, short coat.

jam (adv.), already (p. 124, ftn.).

januar-o, January.

jar-o, year.

je, prep, of indefinite meaning

(89, i8s, 260).
jen (adv.), there, behold (228, p.

216, ftn.).

jes (adv.), yes (171).

Jesu-o, Jesus.

Johano, John.

ju (adv.), the more (used with

pli, 84).
i^S-o, yoke.

jug-i, to judge (p. 228, ftn.).
juli-o, July,
jun-a, young. '
jung-i, to harness,
juni-o, June,
jup-o, skirt,
jurist-o, jurist.

just-a, just, upright (p. 198, ftn.)
juvel-o, jewel.

Jaluz-a, jealous,
jaiid-o, Thursday.
Jet-i, to throw, oast, hurl.
}ongl-i, to juggle.
Jur-i, to take oath, swear.
jurnal-o, newspaper, journal.
JUS (adv.), a moment before, just
(p. 116, ftn., p. 198, ftn.).

K.

kadavr-o, corpse,
kadr-o, frame (of pictures),
kaduk-a, decaying, in ruin,
kaf-o, coffee,
kag-o, cage.

248

BSFEKANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY,

kahel-0, tile (for paving).

kaj (conj.), and; kaj. .kaj. .,

both. .and. . (26, p. 32, ftn.).
kajer-o, notebook,
kaldron-o, caldron,
kalendar-o, calendar.
kale§-o, carriage.
kalkan-o, heel (of the foot);

— umo, heel ofa shoe.
kalkul-i, to calculate, reckon,
kamel-o, camel,
kamen-o, chimney,
kamer-o, camera.
kamp-o, field.
kanajl-o, scoundrel, rascal,
kanap-o, sofa,
kand-o, candy.
kandel-o, candle
kanot-o, canoe,
kant-i, to sing.
kap-o, head.
kapabl-a, capable,
kapel-o, chapel (for prayer).
kapital-o, capital (money).
kapitol-o, capitol.
kapt-i, to catch, seize (p. 206,

ftn.).
kar-a, dear, prized,
karakter-o, character,
karb-o, coal.
karcer-o, jail,
kares-i, to caress.
karn-o, flesh,
karot-o, carrot.

kart-o, card; poStkarto, post-
card; vizi tkarto, visiting card.

karton-o, pasteboard.
karusel-o, merry-go-round,
kas-o, money-box, treasury;

— isto, cashier, treasurer.
kaskad-o, waterfall, cascade.
kastel-o, castle.
ka§-i, to hide, conceal (252).
ka§tan-o, chestnut.
kat-o, cat.

katen-o, fetter, chain,
kauz-o, cause.
kav-o, cavity, hole.
kaz-o, case {grammatical).

ke {mnj.), that (53, 83, lOS, 259,
262, p. 222, ftn.).

kel-o, cellar.

kelk-a,some; — aj, several, more
than one or two.

kelner-o, waiter (in hotel or res-
taurant).

kest-o, chest; tirkesto, drawer.

kia, what kind of (112, igo);
kiamanier-e, how (p. 170, ftn.) .

kial {adv.), why (129).

kiam {adv.), when (123, 155).

kie {adv.), where (118, 151).

kiel {adv.), how, in which way,
as (134, 156, p. 110, ftn.).

kies {"pronoun, possessive), whose
(107, 147).

kilogram-o, kilogram (284).

kilolitr-o, kiloliter (284).

ESPBRANTO-KNGLISH VOCABULARY.

249

kilometr-o, kilometer (284).

klo {prorwun), what (233).

kiom {adv.), how much (140,
164, 185, p. 110, ftn.).

kis-i, to kiss.

kiu (pronoun), who (106, 146).

klak-i {trans.), to clap, clatter.

klar-a, clear, distinct.

klav-o, key (of piano, etc.).

klas-o, class.

kler-a, enlightened, well-in-
formed.

klimat-o, climate.

klin-i (trans.), to incline, bend.

kling-o, blade (of knife, etc.).

klopod-i, to undertake initiative
work, take steps toward,
labor for the success or com-
pletion of something.

klub-o, club (organization)

knab-o, boy.

kobold-o, sprite, kobold,
brownie.

kofr-o, trunk, chest with a lid.

kok-o, cock (domestic fowl).

koket-a, coquettish.

koks-o, hip.

kol-o, neck.

kolbas-o, sausage.

kolegi-o, college.

kolekt-i (trans.), to collect,
gather.

koler-i, to be angry, lose the
temper.

kolomb-o, pigeon, dove.

kolon-o, column, pillar.

kolonel-o, colonel.

kolor-o, color.

kolport-i, to peddle.

komand-i, to command (military

and naval).
komb-i, to comb,
komedi-o, comedy.
komenc-i (trans.), to begin,

commence,
komerc-i, to trade, engage in

commerce.

komfort-o, comfort (freedom
from pain, want, etc.).

komisi-i, to entrust with, put
in charge of, give the agency
for.

komitat-o, committee.

komiz-o, clerk, employe, assist-
ant.

kompani-o, company (commer-
cial organization).

kompar-i, (trans.) to compare,
(266).

kompat-i, to pity, have com-
passion for.

komplet-o, suit (of clothes).

komplez-o, kindness, courtesy,

disposition to oblige,
komplik-i, to complicate,
kompost-i, to compose, set

(type) ; — isto, compositor,
kompot-o, jam, preserve,
kompren-i, to understand.

250

ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY.

komun-a, common, mutual.

komunik-i, to communicate.

kon-i, to be acquainted with,
know; — atigi kun, to become
acquainted with (117).

koncern-i, to concern (266).

koncert-o, concert (musical).

kondamn-i, to condemn.

kondic-o, terms specified, stipu-
lation, condition.

konduk-i, to conduct, lead.

konduktor-o, conductor (of car,
train, etc.).

kondut-i, to behave, conduct
oneself.

konfes-i, to confess, admit.

konfid-i, to trust, have confi-
dence in.

konfit-i, to preserve, pickle
(fruits, etc.).

konform-i, to be in conformity
with (266).

konfuz-i, to confuse, confound.

kongres-o, congress (assembly).

konk-o, shell (of moUusk, etc.).

konkur-i, to vie, compete.

korikurenc-o, competition (in
business, etc.).

konkurs-o, prearranged trial of
skill, formal competition (for
prizes, etc.).

konsci-i, to be conscious.

konscienc-o, conscience.

konsent-i, to consent, agree.

konserv-i,to keep, preserve, save.

konservativ-a, conservative.

konsil-i, to advise, counsel.

konsist-i, to consist.

konsol-i, to console, comfort.

konsonant-o, consonant.

konspir-i, to conspire, plot.

konstant-a, constant.

konstat-i, to verify, ascertain the
truth of, certify.

konstituci-o, constitution.

konstru-i, to build.

konsul-o, consul.

konsult-i, to seek advice of,
consult.

kont-o, account (book-keeping,
commercial) .

kontent-a, jontent, satisfied (p.
206, ftn.).

kontinent-o, continent (geo-
graphical).

kontrakt-i, to contract, agree.

kontrald-o, contralto.

kontraii {prep.), against, oppo-
site, opposed to (p. 49, ftn.,
159, 160).

kontrol-i, to control, inspect,
examine and check.

kontur-o, outline, contour.

kontuz-i, to bruise.

konven-i, to be suitable, be fit-
ting or convenient.

konvink-i, to convince, persuade.

kopi-i, to copy.

kor-o, heart (of the body).

korb-o, basket.

ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY.

251

korekt-i, to correct.

korespond-i, to exchange ietters,

correspond,
koridor-o, corridor, passage.
kork-o, cork (bark).
korn-o, horn.

korp-o, body, — a, corporeal.
korpus-o, corps (mihtary).
kort-o, courtyard, court,
kortego, court (royal, etc.).
korv-o, raven,
kost-i, to cost.
kostum-o, costume.
kot-o, mud.

kotiz-i, to pay dues, pay one's
share of an assessment.

kotlet-o, cutlet, chop.

koton-o, cotton.

kov-i, to brood (of birds).

kovert-o, envelope

kovr-i, to cover.

krab-o, crab.

krad-o, grating, grate, lattice.

krajon-o, pencil.

krak-i, to clack, crackle.

kran-o, faucet, tap.

kravat-o, cravat.

kre-i, to create.

kred-i, to believe (265, p. 206,

ftn.).
krem-o, cream.

krepusk-o, twilight, half-light of
dawn or evening.

kresk-i, to grow.

krestomati-o, chrestomathy, col-
lection of selected passages.

kret-o, chalk.

krev-i {intrans.), to burst, crack
open (suddenly and with
noise).

kri-i, to cry out (p. 206, ftn.).

kribr-i, to sift (with a sieve).

krim-o, crime.

kring-o, ring-shaped biscuit.

kripl-a, crippled.

Krist-o, Christ.

kritik-i, to criticise.

kro£-i, to hook.

krom (prep.), beside, aside from,
except, save, but.

kron-o, crown.

kruc-o, cross ; — umi, to crucify.

kruc-o, pitcher, jug; tekruco,
tea-pot.

kruel-a, cruel.

krur-o, leg.

krust-o, crust.

krut-a, steep.

kubut-o, elbow.

kudr-i, to sew.

kugl-o, bullet.

kuir-i, to cook.

kuk-o, cake; — ajo, pastry.

kukum-o, cucumber.

kukurb-o, pumpkin.

kuler-o, spoon.

kulp-a, guilty.

252

ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY.

kultur-i, to cultivate; terkulturi,
to till the soil, farm.

kun {prep.), with (70, 76, 120,
160, 159, p. 229, ftn.).

kunikl-o, rabbit.

kupon-o, coupon.

kupr-o, copper (metal).

kur-i, to run.

kurac-i, to treat for illness, cure;
— ato, a patient; — ^isto, a phy-
sician, medical man.

kura|-o, courage.

kurb-o, curve.

kurioz-a, uncommon, curious.

kurs-o, course (of lessons).

kurten-o, curtain.

kusen-o, cushion.

ku§-i, to lie, recline (p. 217, ftn.,
239)-

kutim-o, custom, habit.

kuv-o, tub, large basin.

kuz-o, cousin.

kvadrat-o, square (equilateral
rectangle).

kvalit-o, quality, texture.

kvankam {conj.), though, al-
though, while (concessive).

kvant-o, quantity, amount.
kvar, (adj.), four (136).
kvartal-o, quarter (of a city).
kvaza^ (conj.), as though, as if

(250).
kverk-o, oak.
kviet-a, calm, quiet.

kvin, (adj.), five (136).
kvitanc-o, receipt (for payment).

la (article), the (11, 47, 201,
280, a).

labor-i, to work, labor.

lac-a, tired, weary.

lafi-o, string, lace (of shoe, etc.).

lad-o, tin plate (sheet iron cov-
ered with tin).

lag-o, lake.

lakt-o, milk.

laktuk-o, lettuce.

lam-a, lame.

lamp-o, lamp.

lan-o, wool.

lanc-o, lance, spear.

land-o, land, country.

lang-o, tongue (of the body).

lantern-o, lantern.

lanug-o, down (hairs, feathers).

lard-o, bacon.

larg-a, wide, broad.

larm-o, tear (of the eye).

las-i, (trans.), to leave, let, per-
mit.

last-a, last (in a series).

latin-a, Latin.

lau (prep.), in accordance with,
along, by (191).

laub-o, arbor, summer-house.

lafid-i, to praise.

ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY.

253

laiit-a, loud.

lav-i, to wash.

lecion-o, lesson.

led-o, leather.

leg-i, to read.

legom-o, vegetable.

leg-o, law.

lek-i, to lick.

leon-o, lion.

lepor-o, hare.

lern-i, to learn.

lert-a, clever, skilful.

leter-o, letter (epistle).

lev-i, to raise, lift.

li {pronoun), he, him (32, 37, 42).

liber-a, free.

libr-o, book.

lig-i, to tie, bind, fasten; — ilo,

bond; that which ties or

fastens; — ajo, knot; — o,

league, alliance.
lign-o, wood.
lim-o, limit, boundary.
limonad-o, lemonade,
lingv-o, language.
lini-o, line; — ilo, ruler.
lip-o, lip; — haroj, moustache.
lit-o, bed (for sleeping).
liter-o, letter of the alphabet;

lauUtera, literal.

literatur-o, literature.

Ijtr-o, liter (284).

liver-i, to deliver, supply, fur-
nish.

log-i, to allure.

lo^-i, to dwell, reside (133).

lok-o, place; — a, local.

lokomotiv-o, locomotive.

long-a, long.

lonicer-o, honeysuckle.

lorn-o, telescope, spyglass;

— etc, opera-glasses.
lu-i, to hire, rent (engage and

pay rent for).
lud-i, to play.
luks-o, luxury.

lul-i, to lull to sleep; — ilo,

cradle,
lum-i, to shine (275).
iun-o, moon,
lunatik-o, lunatic.
lund-o, Monday,
lup-o, wolf.

M.

mac-i, to chew, masticate,
magazen-o, warehouse.
magi-o, magic.

magistr-o, master of arts (A.M.).
maiz-o, maize, Indian corn,
maj-o, May.
majest-a, majestic.
majones-a, mayonnaise.

majstr-o, master (of his art or

profession).
makaroni-o, macaroni,
maksimum-o, maximum.

254

ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY.

makul-o, spot, stain.

makzel-o, jaw; — osto, jawbone.

mal-, prefix forming opposites
(67).

maleol-o, ankle.

malgrau (prep.), notwithstand-
ing.

malic-a, malicious.

man-o, hand.

mandat-o, money-order.

mang-i, to eat.

manier-o, manner, way.

manik-o, sleeve.

mank-i (intrans.), to be lacking,
wanting.

mantel-o, cloak, mantle.

manuskript-o, manuscript.

mar-o, sea.

marc-o, swamp, marsh.

mard-o, Tuesday.

Mari-o, Mary.

mark-o, mark.

marmelad-o, marmalade.

marmor-o, marble (stone).

mars-i, to walk.

mart-o, March.

martel-o, hammer.

mastr-o, master (of a house, etc.)

ma§in-o, machine.

maten-o, morning (93).

material-o, material.

matur-a, ripe, mature.

mebl-o, piece of furniture.

medicin-o,medicine (the scier.ce) .

mehanik-o, mechanics.

mejl-o, mile.

meleagr-o, turkey.

melk-i, to milk.

melodi-o, melody.

melon-o, melon.

mem (pronoun), self, selves (219),

membr-o, limb, member.

memor-i, to remember, keep in

mind; rememori, to recall to

memory,
mend-i, to order (of a store, etc.).
mensog-i, to lie, tell lies,
menton-o, chin,
menu-o, menu,
merit-i, to deserve, merit,
merkred-o, Wednesday.
merl-o, blackbird,
met-i, to put, place,
metal-o, metal.
meti-o, trade, handicraft.
metod-o, method, way.
metr-o, meter (284).
mez-o, middle,
mezur-i, to measure,
mi (pronoun), 1, me (32, 37),
miel-o, honey.
mien-o, appearance, mien,
miks-i (trans.), to mix.
mil (adj.), thousand (142).
mild-a, mild.

milimetr-o, millimeter (284).
milion-o, million.

ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY.

255

milit-i, to fight, wage war.
min-o, mine (of coal, silver, etc.).
minac-i, to threaten.
minerai-o, mineral.
minimum-o, minimum,
ministr-o, minister (political).
minut-o, minute.
miop-a, shortsighted.
mir-i, to wonder,
mister-o, mystery.
mizer-o, misery.
mod-o, mode, fashion,
model-o, model,
moder-a, moderate.
modest-a, modest,
mok-i, to mock,
mol-a, soft.

moment-o, moment; — a, mo-
mentary, instantaneous.

mon-o, money.
monafi-o, monk,
monarfi-o, monarch.
monat-o, month,
mond-o, world,
mont-o, mountain,
montr-i (trans.), to show.

mor-o, conduct (in regard to
right or wrong); — oj, morals.
moral-a, moral; ^ — eco, morality,
mord-i, to bite.

morgau (adv.), tomorrow (171).
mort-i, to die; — igi, to kill.
mo§t-o, title of respect (258).

mov-i (trans.), to move, put in

motion,
muel-o, mill (for grinding),
mug-i, to roar, bellow,
mult-a, much (81).
mur-o, wall.
murmur-i, to murmur,
mus-o, mouse.
mustard-o, mustard,
mug-o, fly.
mut-a, dumb, mute.
muze-o, museum.
muzik-o, music.

N.

naci-o, nation.

na^-i, to swim.

naiv-a, artless, naive, ingenu-
ous.

najbar-o, neighbor.

najl-o, nail (of metal).

nap-o, turnip.

nask-i, to produce, bring forth,
give birth to.

natur-o, nature.

nafi (adj.), nine (136).

naz-o, nose.

ne (adv.), no, not (27, 66, a, 171).

nebul-o, fog, mist.

neces-a, necessary.

negativ-o, negative (photo-
graphic).

neg-o, snow.

256

ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY.

nek (negative conj.), neither, nor
(31, p. 32, ftn.).

nenia, no kind of (224).

nenial {adv.), for no reason (229).

neniam (adv.), never (226).

nenie {adv.), nowhere (225).

neniel {adv.), in no way (230).

nenies {pronoun, possessive), no-
body's (221).

nenio (pronoun), nothing (233).

neniom (adv.), none, not any
(231)-

neniu (pronoun), no one, nobody,
no (220).

nep-o, grandson.

nepr-e, inevitably, certainly, un-
failingly.

nerv-o, nerve.

nest-o, nest.

neutral-a, neutral, non-partisan.

nev-o, nephew.

ni {-pronoun), we, us (32, 37).

nigr-a, black.

nivel-o, level.

-nj-, suffix forming affectionate
diminutives (283).

nobel-o, nobleman.

nobl-a, noble (in character).

nokt-o, night.

nom-o,nanie; — i, to name, men-
tion.

nombf-o, number (quantity).

nord-o, north.

norveg-o, Norwegian.

nostalgi-o, homesickness.

not-o, note.

nov-a, new, recent, novel; de»

nove, anew, again,
novembr-o, November,
nu {interjection), well! (273).
nuanc-o, shade, tint, hue.
nub-o, cloud,
nud-a, bare, naked, nude,
nuks-o, nut.
nui-o, zero, naught.
numer-o, number, numeral (No.),
nun {adv.), now (171).
nur (adv.), merely, only.
nutr-i, to nourish, to feed.

0.

obe-i, to obey (265).

objekt-o, object, thing.

objektiv-o, lens, objective.

-obi-, suffix forming multiples
(186).

oblikv-a, oblique, slanting.

observ-i, to observe, take note of.

obstin-a, obstinate.

ocean-o, ocean.

odor-i, to smell (good or bad).

ofend-i, to offend.

ofer-i, to sacrifice, offer.

ofic-o, office, employment ; — isto,
officer (of firm or organiza.-
tion); — ejo, office (the place).

oficial-a, official.

ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY.

257

oficir-o, officer (military or na-
val).
oft-a, frequent.
ok (adj.), eight (136).
okaz-i, to happen, occur, take

place,
okcident-o, west.
oktobr-o, October,
okul-o, eye.

okup4, to occupy (p. 206, ftn.).
ol {conj.), than (82, 97, 98).
ole-o, oil.
oliv-o, olive,
ombr-o, shadow, shade,
ombrel-o, umbrella,
-on-, suffix forming fractions

(166).
ond-o, wave.

oni (pronoun), one, they (54).
onkl-o, uncle,
-op-, suffix forming collective

numerals (261).
oper-o, opera.
opini-i, to have the opinion,

think,
oportun-a, handy, convenient,

opportune,
or-o, gold.

orang-o, orange (fruit).
ord-o, order (methodical or

proper arrangement),
ordinar-a, ordinary; eksterordi-

nara, extraordinary.
Oidon-i, to order, bid, command.

orel-o, ear (of the body),
orf-o, orphan,
organ-o, organ (physical).
organiz-i, to organize,
orgen-o, organ, (musical instru-
ment).
orient-o, east.
original-o, original,
orkestr-o, orchestra.
ornam-i, to ornament, adorn,
ort-a, right-angled.
osced-i, to gape, yawn.
ost-o, bone,
ostr-o, oyster.
ostracism-o, ostracism,
ov-o, egg.

pac-o, peace,
pacienc-o, patience,
padel-i, to paddle.
paf-i, to shoot (with gun, etc.).
pag-i, to pay.

pag;-o, page (of a book, etc.).
pajl-o, straw.
pak-i, to pack,
pal-a, pale.
palac-o, palace,
palis-o, stake; — aro, palisade,
palp-i, to feel (with the fingers,
etc.); — ado, touch (the sense),
palpebr-o, eyelid,
pan-o, bread.

258

ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY.

pantalon-o, trousers.
pantofl-o, slipper.
paper-o, paper (material),
papili-o, butterfly,
par-o, pair,
paradiz-o, paradise.
paragraf-o, paragraph.
paralel-a, parallel.
pardon-i, to forgive, pardon (265) .
parenc-o, relative (person).
parfum-o, perfume,
park-o, park.

parker-e, by rote, by heart, from

memory,
parol-i, to speak (77).
part-o, part, share.
particip-o, participle.
pas-i, (intrans.), to pass.
pasa^er-o, passenger.
paser-o, sparrow.
pasi-o, passion.
pasiv-a, passive.
Pask-o, Easter.
pastec-o, patty, small pie.
pastinak-o, parsnip.
pastr-o, pastor, clergyman, priest.
pa§-i, to step.

palt-i (trans.), to pasture, feed;
. — ^isto, shepherd.

pat-o, pan, frying-pan.
patr-o, father.
paiiz-o, pause.
pavim-o, pavement.

pec-o, piece, morsel.

pejzag-o, landscape.

pek-i, to sin.

pekl-i, to pickle (meat, etc.).

pel-i, to chase away, drive off.

pelt-o, coat or wrap of fur.

pen-i, to strive, try (p. 228, ftn.J.

pend-i (intrans.), to hang.

penetr-i, to penetrate.

penik-o, paintbrush, hair pencil.

pens-i, to think.

pent-i, to repent.

pentr-i, to paint.

pep-i, to chirp, twitter.

per (prep.), by means of, with,
by (64, p. 49, ftn., p. 53,
ftn.).

perd-i, to lose.

pere-i, to perish.

perfekt-a, perfect.

perfid-i, to betray; — a, perfid-
ious, treacherous.

period-a, periodic.

perl-o, pearl.

permes-i, to permit, allow, let.

peron-o, platform (railway),
stoop (entrance porch).

persekut-i, to persecute, prose-
cute.

persik-o, peach.

persist-i,. to persist, persevere.

person-o, person.

peruk-o, wig.

pes-i {trans.), to ascertaia the

ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULABY.

259

weight of; — ^ilo, scales, bal-
ance.
pet-i, to request, beg, ask.
petol-i, to be mischievous, saucy,

roguish.
petrol-o, petroleum, kerosene,
petrosel-o, parsley.
pez-i (intrans.), to be heavy,

weigh.
pi-a, pious.
pice-o, spruce (tree).
pied-o,foot; — iranto, pedestrian,
piedestal-o, pedestal.
pik-i to prick, sting.
pilgrim-i, to go on a pilgrimage.
pilk-o, ball (to play with).
pin-o, pine (tree).
pinakotek-o, picture gallery,
pinc-i, to pinch,
pingl-o, pin.

pint-o, point, pinnacle, summit.
pionir-o, pioneer.
pip-o, pipe (for smoking).
pipr-o, pepper.
pir-o, pear,
pist-i, to crush, mash; — ajo,

puree.
pitoresk-a, picturesque.
piz-o, pea.
plac-o, public square, place

(broad, short street or open

space).
plac-i, to please, to be pleasing

(26s).

plad-o, flat dish,
plafon-d, ceiling,
plan-o, plan, scheme,
pland-o, sole (of the foot),
planed-o, planet,
plank-o, floor,
plant-i, to plant.
plat-a, flat, plane,
plaud-i (trans.), to splash, dab-
ble (a liquid).

plej (adv.), most (74, 79, 81,

162) ; malplej, least (80).
plekt-i, to weave, plait, braid.
plen-a, full (p. 206, ftn.);

plenum-i, to fulfil.
plend-i, to complain,
plet-o, tray.
plezur-o, pleasure.
pli (adv.), more (74, 79, 81);

malpli, less (80).
plor-i, to weep, cry.
plu (adv.), further, more, any

more (p. 190, ftn.).
plug-i, to plow.
plum-o, pen, feather.
plumb-o, lead (metal); — isto,

plumber.
pluv-o, rain.

pneiimatik-o, pneumatic tire.
po (prep.), at the rate of (175).
poem-o, poem,
poet-o, poet.
poezi-o, poetry, poesy,
pokal-o, goblet, cup.

260

ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY.

pol-o, Pole.

polic-o, police (force).

politik-o, politics.

polm-o, palm (of the hand).

polur-i, to polish, make smooth
and glossy.

polus-o, pole (geographical).

polv-o, dust.

pom-o, apple.

pomp-o, pomp, splendor.

pont-o, bridge.

popol-o, a people, folk.

popular-a, popular.

per {prep.), for (qs, 98, 262).

porcelan-o, porcelain, china.

porci-o, portion, share.

pord-o, door

pork-o, swine, pig, hog.

port-i, to carry, bear.

portret-o, portrait.

posed-i, to possess, own.

post (prep.), after, behind (89,
120).

postul-i, to require, demand.

poi-o, pocket.

post-0, post (mail) ; — kesto, mail-
box; — marko, postage stamp;
— mandate, postal money or-
der.

pot-o, pot.

potenc-a, powerful, mighty.

pov-i, to be able, can (72).

pra-, prefix indicating remoteness
in line of descent (282).

praktik-o, practice.

prav-a, right, in the right.

precip-a, principal, chief.

preciz-a, precise.

predik-i, to preach.

prefer-i, to prefer.

prefiks-o, prefix.

preg-i, to pray; — ejo, church.

prem-i, to press.

premi-o, premium, prize.

pren-i, to take (p. 206, ftn.).

prepar-i, to prepare.

pres-i, to print.

preskaii (adv.), almost.

pret-a, ready.

pretekst-i, to make pretext of,

pretend, sham.
pretend-i, to make pretension to,

lay claim, to.
prefer (prep.), beyond, past, by

(p. 139, ftn.).
prez-o, price,
prezent-i, to present, offer.

prezid-i, to preside; — anto, pre-
siding officer, president, chair-
man.

pri (prep.), concerning, about,
of (160, 264, c).

princ-o, prince.

princip-o, principle.

printemp-o, spring (season).

pro (prep.), on account of, be-
cause of, for (86).

problem-o, problem.

ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY.

261

procent-o, interest, percentage.

proces-o, lawsuit, legal process.

produkt-i, to produce.

profesi-o, profession, occupation,
calling.

profesor-o, professor.

profil-o, profile.

profit-o, profit ; — i, to profit (by) .

profund-a, deep, profound.

progres-i, to progress.

projekt-o, project.

proklam-i, to proclaim.

prokrast-i, to delay, procrasti-
nate.

proksim-a, near.

promen-i, to go walking, prom-
enade.

promes-i, to promise.

propon-i, to propose, offer.

proporci-o, proportion.

propr-a, own (one's own) ; mal-
propra, other people's; — igi
al si, to appropriate, make
one's own.

prosper-i, to have success, pros-
per.

protekt-i, to protect.

protest-i, to protest.

protokol-o, minutes (of a meet-
ing).

prov-i, to try, attempt, test (p.
228, ftn.).

proviz-i, to provide (p. 206, ftn.).

proz-0, prose; — ajo, prose com-
position, piece of prose.

prudent-a, reasonable, sensible,

rational,
prujn-o, hoar frost.
prun-o, plum,
prunt-o, loan; — i, ( — e doni), to

lend; — e preni, to borrow,
pruv-i, to prove, give proof of.
psalm-o, psalm,
publik-o, public (the): — igi, to

publish.
puding-o, pudding.
pudr-i, to powder.
pugn-o, fist.
pulm-o, lung.
pulv-o, gunpowder.
pump-i, to pump,
pun-i, to punish.
punt-o, lace (point, etc.).
pup-o, doll,
pupitr-o, desk.
pixr-a, clean, pure,
purpur-a, purple.
pu§-i, to push; repuli, to repulse,
put-o, well (for water).

rabarb-o, rhubarb.

rab-i, to pillage, plunder; — isto,
robber.

rabat-i, to rebate, give a reduc-
tion, discount or rebate.

rad-o, wheel.

radi-o, ray (of light), spoke (of
wheel), radius. ,

262

ESPEBANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY.

radik-o, root.

rafan-o, radish.

rafin-i, to refine; — ejo, refinery.

rajd-i, to ride (horse, etc.).

rajt-o, right (to something).

rakont-i, to relate, narrate (77).

ramp-i, to creep, crawl, clamber.

ran-o, frog.

rand-o, edge, border.

rang-o, rank, grade, dignity.

rapid-a, rapid, quick; — o, speed;

— emo, haste.
raport-i, to report, give a report.
ras-o, race (tribe, people, nation).
rasp-i, to rasp, grate; — ilo,

grater.
rat-o, rat.

rauk-a, hoarse, raucous.
rav-i, to enchant.
raz-i, to shave.
re-, prefix indicating repetition or

return (223).
real-a, real.
reciprok-a, reciprocal, mutual

(180).
redakci-o, editorial department,
redakt-i, to edit.
redaktor-o, editor.
redingot-o, frock coat,
refut-i, to refute.
reg-i, to rule, govern, reign.
regal-i (trans.), to regale, treat

(to food or drink).
region-o, region.

registr-i (trans.), to register, en-
roll.

regn-o, state, governed body;
— ano, citizen, subject.

regul-o, rule, regulation.

re|-o, king.

reklam-i, to advertise,

rekomend-i, to recommend, reg-
ister (a letter).

rekompenc-i, to recompense, re-
ward.

rekt-a, straight, undeviating, di-
rect.

rel-o, rail.

religi-o, religion.

rem-i, to row.

rembur-i, to upholster, stuff, pad.

renkont-i (trans.), to meet.

renvers-i (trans.), to upset.

reprezent-i, to represent.

respekt-i, to respect.

respond-i, to answer.

respublik-o, republic.

rest-i, to remain, stay.

restoraci-o, restaurant.

resum-i, to summarize, give in
resume.

ret-o, net, netting.

rev-i, to indulge in revery,
dream, fancy.

revu-o, journal, review, maga-
zine.

rezon-i, to reason (exert the
power of reasoning).

ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY.

263

rezult-i, to result.

ricev-i, to receive.

ric-a, rich.

rid-i, to laugh (265, p. 206, ftn.).

rifuz-i, to refuse.

rigard-i, to look.

rigl-i, to bolt (fasten).

rikolt-i, to harvest, reap.

rilat-i,tohave relation (to) (266).

rimark-i, to notice, note.

rimed-o, means, way; vivrime-

doj, means of livelihood.
rimen-o, thong, strap.
ring-o, ring.
rip-o, rib.

ripar-i, to mend, repair.
ripet-i, to repeat.
ripoz-i, to repose, rest.
ripro£-i, to reproach,
river-o, river.
riz-o, rice.
rob-o, dress, robe.
Robert-o, Robert,
romp-i (trans.), to break,
rond-o, circle, ring, round,
ros-o, dew.
rost-i, to roast.
roz-o, rose (flower).
ruband-o, ribbon.
rubus-o, blackberry.
rul-a, red.
ruin-o, ruin.
rul-i (trans.), to roll (ball, etc.).

rus-o, Russian.

rust-i, to rust.

rutin-o, routine.

ruz-a, crafty, cunning, sly.

sabat-o, Saturday.

sabl-o, sand.

sag-o, arrow

sag-a, wise.

sak-o, sack, bag.

sal-o, salt.

salajr-o, salary, wages.

salat-o, salad.

salon-o, parlor, drawing-room.

salt-i, to jump, leap.

salut-i, to salute, greet.

sam-a, same.

san-a, healthy, well.

sang-o, blood.

sankt-a, sacred, holy.

sap-o, soap.

sarden-o, sardine.

sat-a, sated; malsata, hungry

(p. 206, ftn.).
sauc-o, sauce, gravy, dressing,
sav-i, to save, rescue,
sci-i, to know (117).
scienc-o, science.
se (conj.), if (240).
sed (conj.), but (p. 32, ftn.).
seg-i, to saw.
seg-o, chair.

264

ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY.

sek-a, dry.
sekret-o, secret.
sekretari-o, secretary.
sekund-o, second (of time).
sekv-i, to follow.
sel-o, saddle.
sem-o, seed; — i, to sow.
semajn-o, week.

sen (prep.), without (248, p. 206,

ftn.).
senat-o, senate; — ano, senator.
senc-o, sense, meaning.
send-i, to send.
sent-i, to feel, perceive.
Sep (adj.), seven (136).
septembr-o, September.
ser£-i, to seek, hunt, look for.
serur-o, lock.
serv-i, to serve.
servic-o, course (of a meal),
ses (adj.), six (136).
sever-a, severe, stern.
sezon-o, season.

si (pronoun, reflexive), himself,

herself, etc. (40, 44, 274).
sibl-i, to hiss, whistle (wind, etc.).
sid-i, to sit (239, p. 217, ftn.).
sigel-i, to seal.
sign-o, sign, trace, mark,
signif-i, to signify, mean,
silab-o, syllable.
silent-i, to be silent (239).
silk-o, gilk.

simi-o, monkey.

simil-a, like, similar (p. 206,
ftn.).

simpl-a, simple.

sinjor-o, gentleman, Mr. (163).

Sirakuz-o, Syracuse.

sitel-o, pail, bucket.

skatol-o, small box or case.

skiz-i, to sketch.

sklav-o, slave.

skot-o, Scot, Scotchman.

skrap-i, to scrape.

skrlb-i, to write.

sku-i (trans.), to shake.

skulpt-i, to carve, sculpture.

societ-o, society.

soif-i, to be thirsty.

sojl-o, threshold.

Sokrat-o, Socrates. .

sol-a, alone, sole, only.

soldat-o, soldier.

solen-a, formal, solemn.

somer-o, summer.

son-i (intrans.), to sound.

song-i, to dream (in sleep).

sonor-i (intrans.), to ring, sound;
— ilo, bell.

sopir-i, to yearn, long, sigh (p.
206, ftn.).

sorb-i, to absorb; — papero, blot-
ting-paper.

sor£-o, witchcraft; ensorfii, to
bewitch; — isto, sorcerer.

sort-o, destiny, fate, lot.

ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY.

265

sova§-a, wild, savage.

spac-o, space.

spec-o, kind, sort, species.

special-a, special.

specimen-o, specimen, sample.

spegul-o, mirror.

spert-a, experienced, expert.

spes-o, speso (international unit
of money, 284).

spez-o, clearing (financial); el-
spezi, to disburse, expend,
spend; enspezi, to take in,
receive (funds).

spinac-o, spinach.

spir-i, to breathe; elspiri, to ex-
hale.

spite (prep.), in spite of.

sprit-a, witty.

staci-o, station (railway, boat,
etc.).

stamp-i, to mark officially, stamp.

standard-o, standard, flag.

stan-o, tin (metal).

stang-o, pole.

star-i, to stand (239, p. 217, ftn.).

stat-o, state (of being), condi-
tion.

stel-o, star.

stenografi-o, shorthand, stenog-
raphy.

stil-o, style.

stim'ol-i, to stimulate.

stomak-o, stomach.

strang-a, strange, peculiar.

strat-o, street.

strec-i (trans.), to stretch.

strek-i, to make a streak, or line;
substreki, to underline; sur-
streki, trastreki, to cross off,
strike out.

stri-o, streak, stripe, band.

strik-o, strike (of labor).

stud-i, to study.

student-o, student (college, etc.).

stuf-i (trans.), to stew.

stump-o, stump (of tree, etc.).

sub (prep.), under, beneath (121,
160, p. 229, ftn.).

subit-a, sudden, abrupt.

substanc-o, substance.

sud-o, south.

sufer-i, to suffer, endure.

sufi£-i, to suffice; — ega, abund-
ant.

sufiks-o, suffix.

sufok-i (trans.), to suffocate.

sugesti-i, to suggest.

suk-o, sap, juice (of plants, etc.);

— a, succulent.
sukces-i, to succeed.
suker-o, sugar.
sulfur-o, sulphur.
sulk-o, furrow, wrinkle,
sum-o, sum, amount,
sun-o, sun.
sup-o, soup,
super (prep.), above, over (159;);

— a, superior.

266

ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY.

supergtic-o, superstition.

supoz-i, to suppose.

supr-e (adv.), above; — a, upper,

above; — ajo, surface.
sur (prep.), on, upon (i6o).
surd-a, deaf.
surpriz-i, to surprise.
surtut-o, overcoat.
suspekt-i, to suspect.
sved-o, Swede.
sven-i, to faint, swoon.
sving-i (trans.), swing, brandish.
svis-o, Swiss.

§.

iaf-o, sheep; — ajo, mutton;

— ido, lamb; — idajo, lamb

(meat); — viro, ram.
lajn-i, to seem, appear.
Sal-o, shawl.
ianc-o, luck, chance; bonSance,

luckily.
§ancel-i (trans.), to oscillate,

vacillate, make tremble.
lang-i (trans.), to change, alter.
sarg-1, to burden, load (p. 206,

ftn.)
§at-i, to like, prize.
§aum-o, foam, froth.
§el-o, shell, peeling, bark.
selk-o, suspender, supporter.
§erc-i, to joke, jest.
§i (pronoun), she, her (32, 37, 42).

sild-o, shield.

sink-o, ham.

§ip-o, ship.

sir-i, to tear.

Mrm-i, to shelter, shield; — ^ilo,
screen.

slim-o, slime.

§los-i, to lock; — ilo, key.

Imir-i, to anoint, smear.

§nur-o, string.

sose-o, broad roadway, drive.

Sov-i, to shove, push.

lovel-i, to shovel.
' spar-i, to spare, be economical
of.

spin-i, to spin.

spruc-i, to gush, spout, spurt (of
liquids) .

Irank-o, cupboard, wardrobe.

sraub-o, screw.

§tal-o, steel.

stat-o, state (political).

Itel-i, to steal (252).

stip-o, log, block of wood.

stof-o, cloth, stuff.

ston-o, stone.

stop-i, to stop up, cork; — ilo,
stopper.

strump-o, stocking.

stup-o, step, round; — aro, stair-
case.

su-o, shoe; supersuo, overshoe.

suld-i, to owe, be indebted.

§ultr-o, shoulder.

ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY.

267

§ut-o, chute; — i, to pour (as in a

chute).
Ivel-i, to swell, become swollen.
Ivit-i, to perspire.

tabak-o, tobacco.

tabel-o, table, index, tabulation.

tabl-o, table (furniture).

tabul-o, board, plank.

tag-o, day; — i|o, dawn; — mezo,
noon.

tajlor-o, tailor.

taks-i, to estimate, value, rate.

talent-o, talent.

tali-o, wa-ist; beltalia, shapely,
having a good figure.

tambur-o, drum.

tamen (conj.), nevertheless, how-
ever, yet, still (p. 32, ftn.).

tantiem-o, percentage of profit,
royalty.

tapis-o, carpet.

tarif-o, tariff, schedule of rates.

tas-o, cup; subtaso, saucer.

task-o, task.

taug-i, to be fit for, good for.

tavol-o, layer.

te-o, tea.

teatr-o, theatre; — ajo, play.

ted-i, to be tedious.

teg-i, to cover, put a covering
upon.

tegment-o, roof.

teks-i, to weave.

telefon-i, to telephone.

telegraf-i, to telegraph.

teler-o, plate; — meblo, side-
board.

tem-o, theme, subject.

temp-o, time.

tempi-o, temple (of the head).

templ-o, temple (building).

ten-i, to hold, keep (p. 206, ftn.).

tend-o, tent.

tenor-o, tenor (voice).

tent-i, to tempt.

teori-o, theory.

ter-o, earth, soil; enterigi, to
inter.

teras-o, terrace.

teritori-o, territory.

termin-o, term, definition (word).

tern-i, to sneeze.

terpom-o, potato.

terur-o, terror.

tia, that kind of, such (65).

tial (adv.), therefore (78, 83, p.
222, ftn.).

tiam (adv.), then, at that time
(73).

tibi-o, shin bone, tibia; — karno,
calf (of the leg).

tie (adv.), there (68).

tiel (adv.), thus, so (88, 156).

tigr-o, tiger.

tikl-i, to tickle.

268

BSPEBANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY.

tili-o, linden.

tim-i, to fear, be afraid of.

timon-o, pole, tongue, shaft.

tint-i, to jingle, tinkle.

tic {pronoun), that (233, 234).

tiom {adv.), that much, so much

(104, 164).
tir-i, to pull, draw.
tiran-o, tyrant.
titol-o, title.
tiu {pronoun), that one, that

(56); tiu ci, this one, this

(60).
tost-o, toast (sentiment).
tol-o, linen.
toler-i, to tolerate.
tomat-o, tomato.
tomb-o, tomb, grave.
ton-o, tone.
tond-i, to shear; — ilo, shears,

scissors.
tondr-i, to thunder.

tord-i, to twist; — a, crooked,
winding.

tra {prep.), through (46, 160).

trab-o, beam (wooden).

traduk-i, to translate.

traf-i, to reach, attain (that

which was aimed at or sought) ;

maltrafi, to miss.
trajt-o, feature,
trakt-i, to treat of (in essay,

speech, etc.); — ato, treatise.
tram-o, tram; — vojo, tramway,

street-car line; — veturilo,

street-car.
tran£4, to cut, sever,
trankvil-a, serene, tranquil, calm,
trans {prep.), across, the other

side of (160).
tre {adv.), very, very much,
trem-i, to tremble.
fremp-i, to drench, dip.
tren-i, to drag, haul, draw; — ajo,

train (of a dress).
trezor-o, treasure,
tri {adj.), three (136).
trik-i, to knit.
trink-i, to drink,
tritik-o, wheat.
triumf-o, triumph,
tro {adv.), too, too much,
tromp-i, to deceive,
tron-o, throne.
tropik-o, tropic,
trot-i, to trot.

trotuar-o, sidewalk, pavenient.
trov-i, to find (p. 217, ftn.).
tru-o, hole,
trud-i, to force upon, impose;

altrudema, importunate.
trunk-o, trunk (of tree or body),
tualet-o, toilet.
tub-o, tube, pipe,
tuber-o, bulb, knot, tuber,
tuj {adv.), at once, immediately

(171).
tuk-o, piece of cloth.

ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULAEY.

269

tur-o, tower.

turk-o, Turk.

turment-i, to torment.

turn-i (trans.), to turn.

tus-i, to cough.

tui-i, to touch; kortusi, to touch

(the heart of).
tut-a, entire, whole, all (p. 130,

ftn.).

U.

-uj-, suffix indicating receptacle,

that which bears or contains

(i8i).
-ul-, suffix indicating person

characterized by that in the root

(132)-
ulni-o, elm.
-um-, indefinite suffix (268).

ung-o, nail (of finger); — ego,
claw, talon.

univers-o, universe.

universitat-o, university.

unu (adj.), one (136, 137, 180);
unuito, union.

uragan-o, hurricane.

urb-o, city; £efurbo, capital.

ur|-i, to be urgent or press-
ing.

urs-o, bear.

Uson-o, United States of Amer-
ica.

util-a, useful.

uz-i, to use; trouzi, to abuse.

V.

vad-i, to wade.

vafl-o, wafHe.

vag-i, to wander, to roam; — Isto,

vagabond.
vagon-o, car, railway carriage.
vak-i, to be vacant.
vaks-o, wax.
val-o, valley.

valiz-o, valise, satchel, bag.
valor-i, to be worth.
vals-i, to waltz.
van-a, vain, fruitless.
vang-o, cheek.
vant-a, vain, conceited.
vapor-o, steam, vapor.
varb-i (trans.), to enlist, recruit,
varm-a, warm.

vast-a, vast, spacious, exten-
sive.

vaz-o, vase, basin.

ve! (interjection), woe! ho vel

alas! (273).
veget-i, to vegetate, grow (as

plants).
vegetar-a, vegetarian
vejn-o, vein.

vek-i (trans.), to wake, awake,
vel-o, sail.

velk-i, to fade, wither, wilt.
velur-o, velvet.
ven-i, to come,
vend-i, to sell.

270

ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY.

vendred-o, Friday.

venen-o, poison.

veng-i, to avenge.

venk-i, to conquer, vanquish.

vent-o, wind.

ver-o, truth.

verand-o, veranda, porch.

verd-a, green.

verk-i, to compose (music or

literature).
verm-o, worm.
vermi6el-o, vermicelli.
vers-o, verse,
veri-i, to pour (a liquid).
vertikal-a, vertical.
vesper-o, evening (93).
vest-i, to clothe, dress.
ve§t-o, vest, waistcoat.
vet-i, to wager, bet.
veter-o, weather.
vetur-i, to ride, go (in vehicle,

boat, etc.).
vi (pronoun), you (32, 37, 274).
viand-o, meat.
vibr-i, to vibrate.
vic-o, turn, place in a series;

laii vice, in turn; siavice, in his

(her, its, their) turn; vicprezi-

danto, vice-president.
vid-i, to see.

vidv-o, widower; — ^ino, widow,
vigl-a, alert, brisk.
vila|-o, village.
vin-o, wine.

vinagr-o, vmegar.

vinber-o, grape; sekvinbero,
raisin.

vintr-o, winter.

viol-o, violet.

violon-o, violin.

vip-i, to whip.

vir-o, man (p. 154, ftn.).

virt-o, virtue.

vi§-i, to wipe.

vitr-o, glass (material).

viv-i, to live (133).

vizat-o, face, visage.

vizit-i, to visit.

voc-o, voice; — doni, to vote.

voj-o, road, way.

vojat-i, to journey, travel, voy-
age.

vok-i, to call.

vokal-o, vowel. ,

vol-i, to be willing, will, wish.

volont-e, willingly.

volum-o, volume (book).

volumen-o, volume (of a body).

volv-i, to roll (something around
something).

vort-o, word; — arc, diction-
ary.

vost-o, tail.

vual-o, veil.

vulgar-a, common, vulgar.

vulp-o, fox.

vund-i, to wound.

ESPERANTO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY,

z.

271

zenit-o, zenith,
zigzag-o, zigzag,
zingibr-o, ginger.
zink-o, zinc.

zon-o, girdle, belt, zone.

zoologi-o, zoology.

zorg-i, to care (for), be anxious

(about), (p. 162, ftn.).
zum-i, to hum, buzz.

ENGLISH-ESPEEANTO VOCABULARY.

The following vocabulary includes all Esperanto roots used in the
preceding lessons, all primary words of the language, and a large
number of additional roots (to facilitate original composition). No
attempt has been made, however, to include all of the roots of the
language, or their various English meanings, for which an English-
Esperanto Dictionary should be consulted.

References are to sections, unless the page (p.) is given. For
other parts of speech than those indicated, see Word Formation,
ii6, 120, 159, 171, also the references under Prefixes and Suffixes
in the Index. For formation of compound words other than those
given, see 160, 167, 176, 184. The following abbreviations are used:
adj. = adjective; adv. = adverb; conj. = conjunction; intrans. =
intransitive; prep. = preposition; trans. = transitive; — = repeti-
tion of the English word.

abandon, forlas-i.

abash, hontig-i.

(be)able, pov-i(72).

abominable, abomen-a.

about (prep.), cirkati; (concern-
ing) pri; (adv.), (approxi-
mately, proksimum-e.

above (prep.), super (159);

(adv.), supr-e, ci supre.
abrupt, subit-a.

absorb, sorb-i.

abundant, suficeg-a.

academy, akademi-o.

accelerate (trans.), akcel-i.

accent, akcent-o.

accept, akcept-i.

accident, akcident-o; (chance)

okaz-o.
accompany, akompan-i.
(in) accordance with (prep.),

laii (191).

274

ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY.

account, kont-o; (bill) kalkul-o;

(story) rakont-o.
(on) account of (prep.), pro

(86).
accurate, akurat-a.
accusative, akuzativ-o.
accuse, akuz-i, kulpig-i.
accustomed, familiar-a, kutim-

it-a.
ache, dolor-o.
acid, acid-o.
(be) acquainted with, kou-i

(117); become — , konatig-i.

acquire, akir-i.

across (prep.), trans.

act, ag-i; — on, efik-i; (behave)

kondut-i; (of play) akt-o.
active, agema; (grammatical),

aktiv-a.
actor, aktor-o.
actual, efektiv-a, ver-a.
acute, akr-a.
add, aldon-i (160).
address (on letters, etc.) adres-o;

(lecture) parolad-o.
adequate, sufic-a.
adjacent, apud-a (159).
adjective, adjektiv-o.
administer (manage), administr-i.
admire, admir-i.
admit, konfes-i; (let in) allas-i.
admonish, admon-i.
adore, ador-i.
adorn, ornam-i.

adverb, adverb-o.

advantage, util-o, profit-o.

advertise, reklam-i.

advise, konsil-i.

affable, afabl-a.

affair, afer-o; regrettable — , do-

mag-o.
affirmative, jes-a (171).
(be) afraid, tim-i.
Africa, Afrik-o.
after (prep.), post (89).
afternoon, posttagmez-o (p. 140,

ftn.).
again, denov-e, re-e (223,
against (prep.), kontraii (p. 49,

ftn.).
age, ag-o; of — , plenag-a; old

— , maljunec-o.
(give an) agency, komisi-i.
agent, agent-o.
agitate, agit-i.
agony, agoni-o.
agree, konsent-i; (contract) kon-

trakt-i.
agreeable, agrabl-a.
aid, help-i.
aim at, cel-i.
air, aer-o; to — , aerum-i; (music)

ari-o.
alas! ho ve (273^.
alcohol, alkohol-o.
alcove, alkov-o.
alert, vigl-a.
Alexander, Aleksandr-o.

ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY.

275

Alexandria, Aleksandri-o.

Alfred, Alfred-o.

algebra, algebr-o.

alive, viv-a.

all {pronoun and adj.), ciuj
(173); (indefinite pronoun) oio
(233) ; (adv. of quantity) ciom
(194); (whole, entire) tut-a
(p. 130, ftn.).

alliance, lig-o.

allow, permes-i.

allude, alud-i.

allure, log-i.

almanac, almanak-o.

almost (adv.), preskafi.

alms, almoz-o.

alone, sol-a.

along (prep.), lati (191); — with,
kune kun.

aloud, laut-e.
alphabet, alfabet-o.
already (adi;.), jam (p. 124, ftn.).
also (adv.), ankail.
altar, altar-o.

alter (trans.), sang-i, aliig-i.
although (conj.), kvankam.
always (adv.), clam (187).
America, Amerik-o.
amiable, afabl-a, amind-a.
amid, maze de, inter (85).
among (prep.), inter (85).
amount, sum-o, kvant-o; a cer-
tain — , iom (217).
amphibious, amfibi-a.

amphitheatre, amfiteatr-o.

amuse, amuz-i.

analyse, analiz-i.

ancestor, prapatr-o (282).

anchor, ankr-o.

ancient, antikv-a (p. 128, ftn.).

and (conj.), kaj (26, p. 32, ftn.).

anecdote, anekdot-o.

anew, denov-e.

angel, angel-o.

angle, angul-o.

angry, koler-a.

animal, best-o.

ankle, maleol-o.

announce, anonc-i.

annoy, 6agren-i.

anoint, smir-i.

answer, respond-i.

ant, formik-o.

antelope, antilop-o.

antipathy, antipati-o.

antique, antikv-a, (p. 128, ftn.).

anvil, ambos-o.

anxious, maltrankvil-a.

any (pronoun and adj.), iu (203) ;

(adv. of quantity) iom (217);

— kind, — time, — thing, etc.,

see table, 235.
any more (adv.), plu (p. 190,

ftn.).
apartment, apartament-o.
apathy, apati-o.
apologise, pardonon pet-i.
apology (defence), apologi-o.

276

ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY.

apparatus, aparat-o.

appear (come in sight) aper-i;
(seem) sajn-i.

appearance (aspect), aspekt-o,
mien-o, vidi^-o.

appetite, apetit-o.

applaud, aplatid-i.

apple, pom-o.

apply (put on), almet-i; — to
(for information, etc.), sin
turni al.

approach, alproksimig-i al.

appropriate, proprigi al si; (suit-
able), konven-a, dec-a.

approve, aprob-i.

approximate, proksimum-a.

apricot, abrikot-o.

April, april-o.

apron, antatttuk-o.

aquarium, akvari-o.

Arab, arab-o; street — , bub-o.

arbitrate, arbitraci-i.

arbor, laflb-o.

arc, ark-o.

arcade, arkad-o.

archer, pafarkist-o.

Archimedes, Arnimed-o.

architecture, arhitektur-o.

arena, aren-o.

argue, argument-i.

Aristeides, Aristejd-o.

aristocrat, aristokrat-o.

Aristotle, Aristotel-o.

arithmetic, aritmetik-o. f

arm (of the body) brak-o;

(weapon) armil-o.
army, arme-o.
aroma, arom-o.

around {prep.), fiirkatt (89, 160).
arouse, incit-i, vek-i.
arrange, arang-i.
arrest, arest-i.
arrive, alven-i.
arrogant, arogant-a.
arrow, sag-o.
art, art-o.
Arthur, Artur-o.
article (grammatical, literary)

artikol-o.

artificial, artefarit-a.
artless, naiv-a.

as (fldv.) kiel; as . . . as . . . tiel
. . . kiel . . . (156); — if,

— though, kvazaii (250);

— far as, gis (prep., 46);

— much . . as . . , tiom . .
kiom (164).

ascertain, certig-i; — the truth
of, konstat-i.

(be) ashamed, hont-i.

ashes, oindr-o.

Asia, Azi-o;

aside from {prep.), krom.

ask (inquire), demand-i; (re-
quest), pet-i.

asparagus, asparag-o.

aspect, aspekt-o, mien-o.

jiss, azen-o.

ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY.

277

assemble, kunven-i, kunvok-i.

assist, help-i.

association (organization), aso-

ci-o.
assurance, aplomb-o, certigo.
at (prep.), 6e (125, 160), je

(260); — the rate of, po (175).
athlete, atlet-o.
atmosphere, atmosfer-o.
attack, atak-i.
attain, ating-i, traf-i.
attempt, prov-i.
attentive, atent-a.
attest, atest-i.
attribute, atribut-o.
August, august-o.
Australia, Afistrali-o.
author, atitor-o, verkist-o.
automatic, afitomat-a.
autumn, autun-o.
avaricious, avar-a.
avenge, ven|-i.
avenue, ale-o, bulvard-o.
avoid, evit-i.
awake (trans.), vek-i.
away (adv.), for (71) ; (distant),

malproksim-e (170).
axe, hakil-o.
axis (axle), aks-o.

B.

babble, babil-i.
baby, infanet-o.

bachelor, fraiil-o; — of arts

(A.B.), abiturient-o.
back (of the body), dors-o; to the

rear (adv.), malantaiien (121).
bacon, lard-o.
bag, sak-o, valiz-o.
bagatelle, bagatel-o.
bake (trans.), bak-i.
balance (trans.), balanc-i;

(scales), pesil-o.
ball (to play with), pilk-o;

(dance), bal-o; (globe), glob-o.
banana, banan-o.
band (stripe), stri-o; (music),

orkestr-o; (group), ar-o (126).
bandage, bandag-i.
banish, ekzil-i.
bank (financial), bank-o; (shore),

bord-o.
(become) bankrupt, bankrot-i.
banner, flag-o, standard-o.
banquet, festen-o.
bar, bar-i.

barbarian, barbar-o.
bare, nud-a.
bark (of trees), sel-o; (of dogs),

boj-i.
barrel, barel-o; — organ, gurd-o.
barren, senfrukt-a.
barrister, advokat-o.
barytone, bariton-o.
base (foundation), fundament-o,

baz-o; (ignoble), malnobl-a.
basin, vaz-o, kuv-o.

278

ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY.

basket, korb-o.
bass (voice), bas-o.
bathe (trans.), ban-i.
battle, batal-i.
be, est-i (109, p. 229, ftn.).
beak, bek-o.

beam (wooden), trab-o; (light),
radi-o.

bean (leguminous fruit), fab-o;
(garden bean), fazeol-o.

bear (animal), urs-o; (carry),
port-i; (endure), elport-i, su-
fer-i; (produce, give birth to),
nask-i.

beard, barb-o.
beast, best-o.
beat, bat-i; (surpass), super-i,

venk-i.
beautiful, bel-a.
because {conj.), car (83), tial ke

(83,p.222,ftn.); — of (prep.),
pro (86).

become, ig-i, farig-i (232); (be
suitable), konven-i, dec-i.

bed, lit-o.

bee, abel-o.

beef, bovaj-o (227, c).
beefsteak, bifstek-o.
beet, bet-o.

before (prep.), antaii (89, 90, 120,
159, 160); (conj.), antau ol
(97, 98); (adv.), antatte, Jus
antaue (p. 116 , ftn.).

beg (request), pet-i; (ask alms),
almozon pet-i.

beggar, almozul-o.

begin (trans.), komenc-i (see also

prefix ek-, 206).
behave, kondut-i.
behind (prep.), post.
behold, rigard-i, vid-i; (adv.), jen

(228).
Belgian, belg-o.

believe, kred-i (265, p. 206, ftn.).
bell, sonoril-o.
belong, aparten-i.
below (prep.), sub; (adv.), sub-e,

malsupr-e.
belt, zon-o.
bench, beok-o.
bend (trans.), klin-i, fleks-i.
benevolence, bonfar-o.
berry, ber-o.
beside (prep.), krom; (near),

apud; (at the side of), flanke

de.
bet, vet-i.
betray, perfid-i.
betrothed (man), fianc-o.
between (prep.), inter (85, 89).
bewitch, ensorc-i.
beyond (prep.), preter (p. 139,

ftn.).
bicycle, bicikl-o.
bid (order), ordon-i; — farewell,

adiau-i.
big, grand-a.
bill (of bird), bek-o; bank — ,

bankbilet-o; hand — , afis-o;

(reckoning), kalkul-o.

ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY.

279

bind (fasten), lig-i; (wounds),

bandag-i.
bird, bird-o.
biscuit, biskvit-o; (ring-shaped),

kring-o.
bit (piece), pec-o; (adv.), iom

(217).
bite, mord-i.
black, nigr-a; to — (shoes, etc.),

cir-i.
blackberry, rubus-o.
blackbird, merl-o.
blacking, cir-o.
blade (of knife, etc.), kling-o.
bleat, blek-i.
bless, ben-i.
blind, blind-a.
block (of wood), stip-o.
blood, sang-o.
bloom, flor-i (116).
blot (spot), makul-o.
blotter, sorbil-o, sorbpaper-o.
blouse, bluz-o, kitel-o.
blow, blov-i; (stroke), bat-o.
blue, blu-a; — ish, dubeblu-a.
blush, rugig-i.
board (plank), tabul-o; (food),

nutrad-o.
boast, fanfaron-i.
boat, boat-o, sipet-o.
body, korp-o.

boil (infrans.), bol-i (275).
bolt (fasten), rigl-i.
bonbon, bombon-o.

bond (fastening), ligil-o.

bone, ost-o.

book, libr-o; note — , copy — ,

kajer-o.
boot, bot-o.
border (edge), rand-o.
bore (holes), bor-i; (weary),

enuig-i.
(be) born, naskig-i.
borrow, pruntepren-i.
Boston, Boston-o.
both (pronoun and ad].), ambatt

(238); (adv.), kaj (26).
bottle, botel-o.
bottom, fund-o, malsupr-o.
bough, branc-o.
boulevard, bulvard-o.
boundary, lim-o.
bouquet, buked-o.
bow (of ribbon), bant-o; (for

shooting), pafark-o.
bow (bend), klinig-i, salut-i.
box, kest-o; small — , skatol-o.
boy, knab-o.
bracket (shelf), bret-o.
brag, fanfaron-i.
braid, plekt-i.
brain, cerb-o.
branch (of tree), branc-6; (of

work or study), fak-o.
brandish, sving-i.
brandy, brand-o.
brave, brav-o.
bread, pan-o.

280

ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY.

break (trans)., romp-i; — to

pieces, frakas-i.
breakfast, matenmang-o.
breathe, spir-i.
brick, brik-o.
bridge, pont-o.
bridle, brid-o.
bright (clear), hel-a.

bring, alport-i; — forth (pro-
duce), nask-i; — up (educate),
eduk-i.

brisk, vigl-a.
Briton, Brit-o.
broad, larg-a.
brochure, brosur-o.
bronze, bronz-o.
brood (birds), kov-i.
brother, frat-o.
brown, brun-a.
brownie, kobold-o.
bruise, kontuz-i.
brush, bros-i.
brute, brut-o.
bucket, sitel-o.
buckle, buk-o.
bud, burgon-o.
build, konstru-i.
bulb, tuber-o, bulb-o.
Bulgarian, Bulgar-o.
bull, bovvir-o.
bullet, kugl-o.
bunch, fask-o.
bundle, fask-o, pakaj-o.

bungle, fus-i.

burden, sarg-i (p. 206, ftn.).

burn (intrans.), brul-i (275).

burst (intrans.), krev-i.

bury, enterig-i.

but (con]'.), sed (p. 32, ftn.);

(prep.), krom.
butcher, buc-i.
butter, buter-o.
butterfly, papili-o.
button, buton-o; to — , buto-

num-i.
buy, acet-i.
buzz, zum-i.
by (prep.), per (64, p. 49, ftn.);

de (169, 170); (past), preter

(p. 139, ftn.); (according to),

latt (191).

cab, fiakr-o.

cabbage, brasik-o.

cage, kag-o.

cake, kuk-o.

calculate, kalkul-i.

caldron, kaldron-o.

calendar, kalendar-o.

calf, bovid-o; (of the leg), tibi-

karn-o.
call, vok-i; (visit), vizit-i.
calling (profession), profesi-o.
calm, kviet-a, trankvil-a.
camel, kamel-o.
camera, kamer-o.

ENGLISH-KSPERANTO VOCABULARY.

281

can (be able), pov-i (72); (pre-
serve fruit, etc.), konfit-i.

candle, kandel-o.

candy, kand-o.

canoe, kanot-o.

cap, cap-o.

capable, kapabl-a.

capital (money), kapital-o; (ex-
cellent), boneg-a; (city), cef-
urb-o.

capitol, kapitol-o.

car, vagon-o.

card, kart-o; visiting — , vizit-
kart-o.

care (for), zorg-i (pri); {see also
p. 162, ftn.).

caress, dorlot-i, kares-i.

carpet, tapis-o.

carriage, kales-o, veturil-o.

carrot, karot-o.

carry, port-i.

carve, skulpt-i.

case (small box), skatol-o; (chest),
kest-o; (legal), prooes-o; (hold-
er), uj-o (181), ing-o (237);
(occasion), okaz-o; (grammat-
ical), kaz-o.

cashier, kasist-o.

cascade, kaskad-o.

cast, jet-i.

castle, kastel-o.

cat, kat-o.

catch, kapt-i (p. 206, ftn.).

cattle, brut-o, brutar-o.

cauliflower, florbrasik-o.

cause, ig-i (214); (produce a re-
sult), kaflz-i; (motive), kial-o;
tial-o; (espoused or advocated),
afer-o; (legal), proces-o.

caution, avert-i.

cavity, kav-o.

cease (intrans.), ces-i (see also
ne. . . .plu, p. 190, ftn.).

ceiling, plafon-o.

celebrate, fest-i, solenig-i; — ed,
fama.

celery, celeri-o.

cellar, kel-o.

cent, cend-o.

center, centr-o.

centigram, centigram-o (284).

centiliter, centilitr-o (284).

centimeter, centimetr-o (284).

certain, cert-a; a — (one), iu
(pronoun and adj., 203); —
amount, etc., see table, 235.

certainly, nepr-e, cert-e, ja (215).

certify, atest-i, certig-i, konstat-i.

chain, cen-o; (fetter), katen-o;
(of mountains), montar-o.

chair, seg-o.

(be) chairman, prezid-i.

chalk, cret-o.

chance, sanc-o; (hazard), ha-
zard-o; (opportunity), okazo.

change (trans.), sang-i; (coins),
moner-oj.

chapel, kapel-o.

chapter, capitr-o.

282

ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY.

character, karakter-o.

charge (commission), komisi-o;

(burden), sarg-o; (price, cost),

prez-o, kost-o.
charm, carm-i.
chase (game, etc.), 6as-i; (drive

off), forpel-i.
chatter, babil-i.
check (on bank), cek-o.
cheek, vang-o.
cheese, fromag-o.
chemise, cemiz-o.
chemistry, hemi-o.
chemist's shop, apotek-o.
cheque, cek-o.
cherry, ceriz-o.
chest (box), kest-o; (with a lid),

kofr-o.
chestnut, kastan-o.
chew, mac-i.
chief, cef-a (p. 221, ftn.),

precip-a; (leader), estr-o (253).
child, infan-o, id-o (207).
chimney, kamen-o.
chin, menton-o.

china (porcelain), porcelan-o;

(country), Hinuj-o.
Chinaman, hin-o.
chirp, pep-i.
chocolate, cokolad-o.
choir, hor-o.
choose, elekt-i.

chop, hak-i; (cutlet), kotlet-o.
chrestomathy, krestomati-o.

Christ, Krist-o.

church (building), pregej-o.

chute, sut-o.

cigar, cigar-o.

cigarette, cigared-o.

cinnamon, cinam-o.

cipher, cifer-o.

circle, cirkl-o, rond-o.

circular (letter, etc.), cirkuler-o.

circumstance, okaz-o, detal-o,

cirkonstanc-o.
citizen, regnan-o, urban-o.
city, urb-o.
civilise, civiliz-i.
clack, krak-i.
claim, pretend-i.
clamber, ramp-i.
clap (trans.), klak-i.
class, klas-o.
clatter, (trans.), klak-i.
claw, ungeg-o.
clay, argil-o.
clean, pur-a.

clear (bright), hela; (distinct),

klar-a.
clearing (financial), spez-o.
clergyman, pastr-o.
clerk, komiz-o.
clever, lert-a.
climate, klimat-o.
cUmb up, grimp-i, supren ramp-i.
cloak, mantel-o.
clock, horlog-o.

ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY.

283

close (trans.), ferm-i; (dense),
dens-a; — to (prep.), apud;
proksim-e de (170).

cloth (in general), stof-o;
(woollen, etc.), drap-o; (piece
of), tuk-o; table — , tablotuk-o.

clothe, vest-i.
cloud, nub-o.

club (organization), klub-o;
(weapon), bastoneg-o.

coal, karb-o.

coat, vest-o; (short), jak-o;

(frock), redingot-o; over — ,

surtut-o.
cock (fowl) J kok-o.
coffee, kaf-o.
collect (trans.), kolekt-i.
college, kolegi-o.
colonel, kolonel-o.
color, kolor-o.
column, kolon-o.
comb, komb-i.
come, ven-i.
comedy, komedi-o.
comfort (console), konsol-i;

(freedom from pain, etc.),

komfort-o.
command, ordon-i; (military and

naval), komand-i.
commerce, komerc-o.
commission (entrusted), komi-

si-o; (percentage of profit),

tantiem-o, komisipag-o.
committee, komitat-o.
common (general), general-a;

(mutual), komun-a; (vulgar),
vulgar-a.

communicate, komunik-i.

company (commercial), kom-
panio; (guests), gastar-o;
(presence), 6eest-o.

compare (trans.), kompar-i (266).

compassion, kompat-o.

compete, konkur-i.

competition, konkurad-o; (for
prizes), konkurs-o; (in busi-
ness), konkurenc-o.

complain, plend-i.

complicate, komplik-i.

compose (music or literature),
verk-i.

compositor (of type), kompos-
tist-o.

conceal, kas-i (252).

concern, koncern-i (266); (anx-
iety), maltrankvilec-o.

concerning (prep.), pri. (264, c).

concert (musical), koncert-o.

condemn, kondamn-i.

condition, cirkonstanc-o; (stipu-
lation), kondic-o; (state),
stat-o.

conduct (lead), konduk-i; — one-
self (behave), kondut-i.

conduct (behavior), kondut-o;
(in regard to right or wrong),
mor-o.

conductor (of car, etc.), kon-
duktor-o.

confess, konfes-i.

284

ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY.

confide, konfid-i (p. 206, ftn.)-
conform, koaform-i (266).
confound (confuse), konfuz-i.
congratulate, gratul-i.
congress, kongres-o.
conquer, venk-i.
conscience, konscieno-o.
(be) conscious, konsci-i.
consent, konsent-i.
consequently, sekv-e, do (p. 32,

ftn.); tial (78).
(be) conservative, konservativ-a.
consist, konsist-i.
console, konsol-i.
consonant (letter), konsonant-o.
conspire, konspir-i.
constant, konstant-a.
constitution, konstituci-o.
consul, konsul-o.
consult, konsult-i, pet-i konsilon

de.
contaminate, infekt-i.
content, kontent-a (p. 206, ftn.).
continent (land), kontinent-o.
continue, daflr-i, daurig-i.
contour, kontur-o.
contract (commercial and legal),

kontrakt-i.
contralto, kontrald-o.
contrary, mal-o (67) ; kontrausta-

rem-a.
control, kontrol-i; (govern), reg-i.
convenient, konven-a, oportun-a.
convince, konvink-i.

cook, kuir-i.

copper, kupr-o.

copy, kopi-i; (of a book, etc.),

ekzempler-o.
coquettish, koket-a.
cork, stop-i; (bark of cork tree),

kork-o.

corner, angul-o.

corporal, corporeal, korp-a.

corps (military), korpus-o.

corpse, kadavr-o.

correct, korekt-i; (right), prav-a.

correspond, korespond-i.

corridor, koridor-o.

cost, kost-i.

costume, kostum-o.

cotton, koton-o.

cough, tus-i.

counsel, konsil-i.

count, kalkul-i, sum-i, nombr-i;

(person), graf-o.
county, grafland-o.

country, land-o; (as opposed to

city), kampar-o.
coupon, kupon-o.
(be) courageous, kurag-i.

course (of lessons), kurs-o; (of a
meal), servic-o; of — , kom-
preneble; in the — of, en la
dattro de.

court, kort-o, korteg-o, julej-o.

courteous, gentil-a.

courtesy, gentilec-o; (kindness),
komplez-o.

ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY.

285

cousin, kuz-o.

cover, kovr-i; (put covering
upon), teg-i.

crab, krab-o.

crack (split) (trans.), fend-i;
(crackle), krak-i; (burst open)

(intrans.), krev-i.

cradle, lulil-o.

crafty, ruz-a.

cravat, kravat-o.

crawl, ramp-i.

crazy, frenez-a.

cream, krem-o.

create, kre-i.

creep, ramp-i; — up, grimp-i.

crime, krim-o.

crippled, kripl-a.

criticise, kritik-i.

crooked, tord-a, malrekt-a,
kurb-a.

cross, kruc-o; (angry), koler-a;

— off, trastrek-i.
crowd, amas-o, anar-o (145, 126).
crown, kron-o.
crucify, krucum-i.
cruel, kruel-a.
crush, pist-i, premeg-i.
crust, krust-o.
cry (weep), plor-i; (shout), kri-i

(p. 206, ftn.); (of animals),

blek-i.

cucupiber, kukum-o.
cultivate, kultur-i; — the soil,
terkultui-i.

cunning, ruz-a.

cup, tas-o; (goblet), pokal-o.

cupboard, srank-o.

curious (odd), kurioz-a; (inquisi-
tive), scivol-a.

curl (of hair), bukl-o.

curtain, kurten-o.

curve, -kurb-o.

cushion, kusen-o.

custom, kutim-o; (tax), impost-o.

cut, tranc-i; (of a garment),
fason-o.

cutlet, kotlet-o.

cylinder, cilindr-o.

Cyrus, Cirus-o.

dabble (a liquid), plafid-i.

dainty, delikat-a.

damage, difekt-i.

Damocles, Damokl-o.

Dane, dan-o.

danger, danger-o.

dance, danc-i.

date (fruit), daktil-o; (time),

dat-o.
dawn, tagig-o.
day, tag-o.
deaf, surd-a.
dear (prized), kar-a; (expensive),

multekost-a.
debase (adulterate), fals-i; (make

bad), malbonig-i.

286

ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULAKY.

decay (mould), sim-o; (in health),

kaduk-i.
deceive, tromp-i.
December, decembr-o.
decide, decid-i.
decigram, decigram-o (284).
deciliter, decilitr-o (284).
decimeter, decimetr-o (284).
deck (of ship), ferdek-o; (adorn),

ornam-i.
declaim, deklam-i.
deep, profund-a.
deer, cerv-o.
defend, defend-i.
define, defin-i, priskrib-i.
degree, grad-o.

dekagram, dekagram-o (284).
dekaliter, dekalitr-o (284).
dekameter, dekametr-o (284).
delay, prokrast-i.
delegate, deleg-i.
delicate, delikat-a.
delightful, carm-a, pla6eg-a.
deliver (supply), liver-i; (set free),

liberig-i.
delusion, iluzi-o.
demand, postul-i.
dense, dens-a.
deny, ne-i (171).
department (of work, etc.), fak-o.
desert, dezert-o; (just reward),

merit-o.
deserve, merit-i. *
desire, dezir-i.

desk, pupitr-o, skribtabl-o.

dessert, desert-o.

destine, destin-i, difin-i.

destiny, destin-o; (lot), sort-o.

destroy, detru-i, neniig-i.

detail, detal-o.

dew, ros-o.

diamond, diamant-o.

dictionary, vortar-o.

dictate (letters), dikt-i.

die, mort-i.

different, divers-a, malsam-a,

difereuc-a.
differentiate, diferencig-i.
dig, fos-i.

dignity (rank), rang-o.
diligent, dlligent-a.
dimension, dimensio; (size), am-

pleks-o.

Diogenes, Diogen-o.
dip (in liquid), tremp-i.
diploma, diplom-o; holder of — ,

diplomit-o.
diplomat, diplomat-o.
direct (guide), direkt-i; (unde«

viating), rekt-a.

disburse, elspez-i, elpag-i
discount, rabat-i.
discuss, diskut-i, priparol-i.
disdain, malsat-i, malestim-i.
dish (flat), plad-o.
dispatch (letter), depes-o.
distance, distanc-o.

ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY.

287

distinct, klar-a.

distinguish, disting-i.

distract (the attention), distr-i;

(confuse), konfuz-i.
disturb, gen-i, maltrankvilig-i.
diverse, divers-a.
divide {trans.'), divid-i.
do, far-i; (suffice), sufic-i.
doctor, doktor-o; (medical), ku-

racist-o.
dog, hund-o.
doll, pup-o.
dollar, dolar-o.
donkey, azen-o.

door, pord-o; — handle, ans-o.
doubt, dub-i.

down (hair or feathers), lanug-o;

(downward) (adv.), malsupren.
dove, kolomb-o.
drag (trans.), tren-i.
draw (pull), tir-i; (sketch)^ skiz-i.
drawer, tirkest-o.
drawing-room, salon-o.
dream (in sleep), song-i; (fancy),

rev-i.

drench, tremp-i.

dress, vest-i (sin); (frock), rob-o;
— suit, frak-o.

dressing (sauce), sauc-o.

drink, trink-i.

drip, gut-i.

drive (off), pel-i; (vehicle), vetu-

rig-i; (roadway), sose-o.
drown (intrans.), dron-i.

drug, drog-o; — store, apotek-6.

drum, tambur-o.

dry, sek-a.

duck, anas-o.

dues, kotizaj-o; pay — , kotiz-i.

dumb, mut-a; — animal, brut-o.

during (prep.), dum (96); en la

daiiro de-.
dusk, krepusk-o.

dust, polv-o; remove the — ,

senpolvig-i.
duty, dev-o; be on — , dejor-i.
dwell, log-i.

E.

each (adj. and pronoun), citt

(173).
eager, avid-a.
eagle, agl-o.

ear (of the body), orel-o.
early, fru-a.
earth, ter-o; (the planet), ter-

glob-o.
east, orient-o.
Easter, Pask-o.
easy, facil-a.
eat, mang-i.
echo, eh-o.

economical, sparem-a.
edge, rand-o; (of rivers, etc.),

bord-o.
edit, redakt-i.
editor, redaktor-o.
editorial body, redakci-o.

288

ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY.

educate, (rear), eduk-i; (teach),

instru-i.
effect, efekt-o.
effective, efektiv-a.
(be) efficacious, efik-i.
egg, ov-o.
Egypt, Egipt-o.
eight (adj.), ok (136).
either {pronoun and adj.), iu

(203); ciu (173); unu ati la

alia; {adv.), au (p. 32, ftn.);

on — side {adv.), ambauflanke

(238).
elbow, kubut-o.
electric, elektr-a.
elk, alk-o.
elm, ulm-o.
eloquent, elokvent-a.
embroider, brod-i.
eminent, eminent-a.
empire, imperi-o.
employ (hire), dung-i; — oneself,

sin okupi (p. 206, ftn.); (use),

uz-i.

employ^, komiz-o, dungit-o, ofi-

cist-o.
employment, ofic-o, okupad-o.
enchant, ensorc-i, rav-i.
encore {adv.), bis.
end {trans.), fin-i.
endow, dot-i.
endure, sufer-i, elport-i.
engineer, ingenier-o.
Englishman, angl-o.

enjoy, gu-i; — oneself, sin

amuz-i.
enUghtened, kler-a.
enlist {trans.), varb-i.
enroll {trans.), registr-i, varb-i.
enthusiasm, entuziasm-o.
entire, tut-a (p. 130, ftn.).
entrust, komisii, alkonfid-i.
envelope (of letter), kovert-o.
envy, envi-i.
(be an) epicure, frand-i.
epoch, epok-o.
equal, egal-a.
err, erar-i.
establish, establ-i, fond-i; (prove,

etc.), konstat-i.

estate, bien-o.

esteem, estim-i.

estimate, taks-i.

eternal, etern-a, ciam-a.

Europe, Eflrop-o.

evangel, evangeli-o.

even (level), eben-a; — number,
parnombro; (actually) {adv.),
eo.

evening, vesper-o (93); — dress
(of man), frak-o.

ever {adv.), iam (212); {indefinite

adv.), ajn (236) ; (always), oiam

(187).
every (one), {pronoun and adv.),

ciu (173); —thing, — way,

etc., see table, 235.

evolution, evoluci-o.

ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY.

289

exact, akurat-a, gust-a (p. 198,
ftn.); (demand), postul-i.

examine, ekzamen-i; — and
check, kontrol-i.

example, ekzempl-o; (model),

' model-o.

Excellency (title), most-o (258).

except, escept-i (266); (prep.),
krom. ,

excite, ekscit-i.
exercise (trans.), ekzerc-i.
exhale, elspir-i.
exhort, admon-i.
exile, ekzil-i.
exist, ekzist-i.
expect, atend-i.

expend (money), elspez-i; (en-
ergy, etc.), uz-i, eluz-i.
experienced, spert-a.
experiment, eksperiment-i.
expert, spert-a, lert-a.
explode (intrans.), eksplod-i

(275)-
explore, esplor-i.
express, esprim-i; (train), rapida

vagonaro.

extend (trans.), etend-i, pligran-
dig-i, plilongig-i.

extensive, vast-a, vastampleks-a.
extent (size), ampleks-o.
extinguish, esting-i.
extraordinary, eksterordinar-a.
eye, okul-o; — brow, brov-o;
— lid, palpebr-o.

fable, fabel-o.
face, vizag-o.

fact, fakt-o; in — , fakt-e, efek-

tiv-e, ja (215).
fade, velk-i.
fair (just), just-a; (beautiful),

bel-a.
fairy, fe-o, fein-o.
faint, sven-i.
faithful, fidel-a.
fall, fal-i; (autumn), autun-o.
false, fals-a; (treacherous), per-

fid-a.
fame, fam-o.

familiar, familiar-a, kutim-a.
family, famili-o.
fancy, imag-i, rev-i.
far, malproksim-e; as — as

(prep.), ^is (46).
farm (as a tenant), farm-i; (till

the soil), terkultur-i.
farewell (adv. and interjection),

adiaQ (171, 273).
fashion, fason-o, mod-o.
fasten, lig-i.

fat, gras-o; (corpulent), dik-a.
fatal, fatal-a.

fate, sort-o, fatal-o, destin-o.
father, patr-o.
faucet, kran-o.

favor, favor-i; a — , komplezo.
favorable, favor-a.
fay, fe-o, fein-o.

290

ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY.

fear, tim-i.

feather, plum-o.

feature, trajt-o.

feed, nutr-i; — flocks, past-i.

feel, sent-i; (with fingers, etc.),

palp-i.
female, in-o (59).
fervor, fervor-o.
fetter (chain, etc.), katen-o.
fever, febr-o.
fianc€, fianc-o.
fie {interjection), & (273).
field, kamp-o.
fight, batal-i, milit-i.
fill, plenig-i.

find, trov-i (p. 217, ftn.).
fine, bel-a, delikat-a; (of money),

monpim-o.
finger, fingr-o; index — , montra

fingro; little — , malgranda

fingro; middle — , longa fingro;

ring — , ringa fingro.
finish (trans.), fin-i.
fir, abi-o.

fire, fajr-o; set — to, ekbrulig-i.
firm, firm-a.

fish, fis-o; (catch fish), fiskapt-i.
fist, pugn-o.

fit, almezur-i; (be) — , taiig-i.
(be) fitting, konven-i; (decent),

dec-i.
five (adj.), kvin (136).
flag, flag-o, standard-o.
flat, glat-a, eben-a, plat-a.

flesh, karn-o.

flex (trans.), fieks-i.

floor, plank-o.

flour, farun-o.

flow, flu-i.

flower, flor-o (116).

fluid, fiuid-a.

fly, flug-i; (insect), mus-o.

foam, saum-o.

focus, fokus-o.

fog, nebul-o.

fold, fald-i.

folk, popol-o.

follow, sekv-i, postven-i, postir-i.

(be) fond of sweets, frand-i.

fondle, dorlot-i.

foot (of the body), pied-o; (meas-
ure), fut-o.

for (prep.), per (95, g8, 262);
pro (86); (conj.), car (83).

force, fort-o; (compel), devig-i;

— (upon), altrud-i (al).
fore-, pra- (282).
forehead, frunt-o.
foreign, fremd-a.
forge (falsify), fals-i.
forget, forges-i.
forgive, pardon-i.
fork, fork-o.

form, form-i, alform-i, model-i.
formal, solen-a.
found, fond-i.
foundation, fundament-o.

ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY.

291

four (adj.), kvar (136).

fount, font-o.

fountain, fontan-o.

fox, vulp-o.

fragrance, arom-o, bonodor-o.

frame (of picture), kadr-o.

frank, afrank-i.

Frederick, Frederik-o

free, liber-a.

Frenchman, franc-o.

frequent, oft-a; (visit often),

vizitad-i.
fresh, fres-a, nov-a.
Friday, vendred-o.
friend, amik-o.
fringe, frang-o.
frivolous, malserioz-a.
frock coat, redingot-o.
frog, ran-o.
from (prep.), de (89, 170); el (p.

115, ttn.); (cause), pro (86).
frost, frost-o; (hoar), prujn-o.
froth, saum-o.
fruit, frukt-o.
fruitless (vain), van-a.
fry {trans.), frit-i.
function (of machinery, etc.),

funkci-i.
funereal, funebr-a.
fulfil, plenum-i.
full, plen-a (p. 206, ftn.).
fur, tel-o; (coat or wrap), pelt-o.
furious, furioz-a.

furnish (supply), liver-i; (pro-
vide), proviz-i; (a house),
mebl-i.

furniture (piece of), mebl-o.

furrow, sulk-o.

further (adv.), plu (p. 190, ftn.).

fuse (trans.), fand-i.

futile, van-a.

future, estontec-o; (grammati-
cal), estont-o; {adj.), estont-a.

G.

gain, gajn-i, obten-i.

gallery, galeri-o; (for pictures),

pinakotek-o.
gallop, galop-i.
gamin, bub-o.
gape (yawn), osced-i.
garden, garden-o.
garland, girland-o.
gas, gas-o.

gather {trans.), kolekt-i.
gay, gaj-a.
gaze, fikse rigard-iv
gazette, gazet-o.
general, general-a, komun-a;

(military), general-o.
gentleman, sinjor-o.
geometry, geometri-o.
German, german-o.
Gertrude, Gertrud-o.
ghost, fantom-o.
gift, donac-o.
ginger, zingibr-o.

292

ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY.

girdle, zon-o.

give, don-i; (as a gift), donac-i;
— information, inform-i; —
notice, aviz-i; — witness,
atest-i; — birth to, nask-i.

(be) glad, goj-i (ii6, p. 206, ftn.).

glass (material), vitr-o; (tum-
bler), glas-o.

glide, glit-i.

globe, glob-o.

glory, glor-o.

glossy (polished), polurit-a.

glove, gant-o.

glue, glu-i.

gnash, grinc-i.

go, ir-i; (in vehicle, boat, etc.),

vetur-i; — on a pilgrimage,

pilgrim-i.
goal, eel-o.
goblet, pokal-o.
God, Di-o.

good, bon-a; be — for, taflg-i per.
good-bye (adv. and interjection),

adiafi (171, 273).
goose, anser-o.
gospel, evangeli-o.
govern, reg-i.
graceful, graci-a.
grade, grad-o; (rank), rang-o.
grain (wheat, etc.), gren-o; (unit)

er-o (276).
gram, gram-o (284).
grammar, gramatik-o.
grandfather, av-o.

grandson, nep-o.

grape, vinber-o.

grass, herb-o.

grasshopper, akrid-o.

grate, rasp-i; grater, raspil-o.

grating (bar or lattice), krad-o.

grave, tomb-o; (serious), grav-a.

gravitate, gravit-i. .

gravy, satlc-o.

gray, griz-a.

grieve (trans.), cagren-i, mal-
gojig-i; (intrans.) malgoj-i.

grind, grinc-i.

great, grand-a; (remote in ances-
try), pra- (282).

Greek, grek-o.

green, verd-a; — ish, dubeverd-a.

greet, salut-i.

groan, gem-i.

group, grup-o, ar-o (126).

ground, ter-o; — floor, teretag-o.

grow, kresk-i, veget-i.

guard, gard-i.

guess, diven-i.

guest, gast-o.

guide, gvid-i, direkt-i.

guilty, kulp-a.

gunpowder, pulv-o.

gush (of liquids), spruc-i.

H.

habit, kutim-o.

hack, hak-i; (carriage), fiakr-o.

ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY.

293

hail (frozen rain), hajl-o.

(a) hair, har-o ; — pencil, penik-o.

half, duon-o (i66, 277).

halt (intrans.), halt-i.

ham, sink-o.

hammer, martel-o.

hand, man-o; (of clock), mon-

tril-o.
handbill, afis-o.
handicraft, meti-o.
handsome, bel-a.
hang (intrans.), pend-i.
handy, oportun-a.
happen, okaz-i.
happy, felic-a.
harbor, haven-o.
hardly {adv.), apenaii.
hare, lepor-o.
haricot (bean), fazeol-o.
harness, jung-i.
harvest, rikolt-i.
hasten {trans.), akcel-i; (intrans.)

rapid-i.
hat, capel-o.

haughty, fier-a (p. 206, ftn.).
haul, tren-i.

have, hav-i; — to, dev-i.
hay, fojn-o.
hazard, hazard-o.
hazel-nut, avel-o.
he (pronoun), li (32, 37) 42).
head, kap-o; (adj.), cef-a (p. 221,

ftn.).

health, san-o; state of (good or
bad) — , fart-o.

hear, aiid-i.

heart, kor-o; by — , (by rote),
parker-e.

heat (trans.), hejt-i, varmig-i.

heaven, ciel-o; heavenly body,
astr-o.

heavy, pez-a.

Hebrew, hebre-o.

heel (of foot), kalkan-o; (of
shoe), kalkanum-o.

hektare, hektar-o (284).

hektogram, hektogram-o (284).

hektoliter, hektolitr-o (284).

hektometer, hektometr-o (284).

help, help-i (265).

hen, kokin-o.

herb, herb-o.

hero, hero-o.

hesitate, hezit-i.

hide, kas-i (252); (skin of ani-
mals), fel-o.

Hiero, Hieron-o.

high, alt-a.

hinge, 6arnir-o.

hip, koks-o.

hire (persons), dung-i; (houses,
etc.), lu-i.

hiss, sibl-i.

history, histori-o

ho (interjection), ho (273).

hoar (frost), prujn-o.

hoarse, raiik-a.

294

ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY.

hog, pork-o.

hold, ten-i (p. 206, ftn.).

holder (handle), tenil-o, ans-o;
(receptacle), uj-o (i8i); ing-o
(237)-

hole, tru-o; (cavity), kav-o.

Holland, Holand-o.

holy, sankt-a.

home, hejm-o; at — , cehejme.

homesickness, nostalgi-o.

honest, honest-a.

honey, miel-o.

honeysuckle, lonieer-o.

honor, honor-i; (as term of ad-
dress), most-o (258).

hook, kro6-i.

hope, esper-i.

horizon, horizont-o.

horizontal, horizontal-a.

horn, korn-o.

horse, ceval-o.

horse-radish, armoraci-o.

hose, strump-oj; — supporter,
selk-o.

hotel, hotel-o.

hour, hor-o (185).

house, dom-o; at the — of
(prep.), ce (125, 160).

how (adv.), kiel (134); kiama-
nier-e (p. 170, ftn.) ; — much,
kiom (140, 185).

however (conj.), tamen (p. 32,
ftn.)," (adv.), ajn (236).

hue, nuane-o.

hum, zum-i.

human being, hom-o (p. 154, ftn.).
humble, humil-a.
humor, humor-o.
hundred (adj.), cent (142).
hungry, malsat-a.
hunt, ser-ci; (game or wild ani-
mals), cas-i.
hurdy-gurdy, gurd-o.
hurl, Jet-i.

hurrah (interjection), hura (273).
hurricane, uragan-o.
hurry, rapid-i.
husband, edz-o.
hjrpocrite, hipokrit-o.

I.

I (pronoun), mi (32, 37, 274).

ice, glaci-o; (food), glaciaj-o.

idea, ide-o.

ideal, ideal-o.

identical, ident-a.

idiom, idiom-o.

idiot, idiot-o.

if (conj.), se (240); as — , kvazaii

(250); (whether), 6u (P- 38,

ftn.).

ignore, ignor-i.
illusion, iluzi-o.
illustrate, ilustr-i.
image, bild-o.
imagine, imag-i.
imitate, imit-i.

ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY.

295

immediate, tuj-a (171).

implicate, implik-i.

important, grav-a, serioz-a.

importunate, altrudem-a.

impose, trud-i.

impost, impost-o.

impress, impres-i.

impulse, impuls-o.

in (prep.), en (46, 89, 160); —

the presence of, ce (125, 160).
inch, col-o.
incite, incit-i.
incline (trans.), klin-i.
incommode, gen-i.
(be) indebted, suld-i.
indeed (adv.), ja (215); do (p.

32, ftn.); efektiv-e.
index, tabel-o.
Indian (American), indian-o,

rughautul-o; — corn, maiz-o.
indifferent, indiferent-a (p. 162,

ftn.).
industry (trade), industri-o.
inebriate, ebri-a.
inevitable, nepr-a, neevitebl-a.
infect, infekt-i.
influence, influ-i.
inform, inform-i, soiig-i.
ingenuous, naiv-a.
inhabitant, logant-o, an-o (145).
inhale, enspir-i.
ink, ink-o.
inquire, demand-i.
insect, insekt-o.

inside (adv.), intern-e; (prep.),

en.
insist, insist-i.
inspect, inspekt-i, ekzamen-i,

rigard-i, kontrol-i.
inspire, inspir-i.
instantaneous, moment-a.
instead of (prep.), anstatau (98,

159)-
instruct, instru-i; (order), ordon-i.
insult, insult-i.
insure (with a company), ase-

kur-i; (make certain), certig-i.
intelligent, inteligent-a.
intend, intenc-i.
interest, interes-i (p. 206, ftn.);

(of money), procent-o.
(be) intermittent, intermit-i.
internal, intern-a.
interpret, interpret-i.
intimate, Intim-a.
intoxicated, ebri-a.
investigate, esplor-i, ekzamen-i,

elserc-i.

invite, invit-i.

iron (metal), fer-o; (linen), glad-i.

island, insul-o.

it (pronoun), gi (32, 37, 42, 274);

see also 50, 51.
Italian, ital-o.

jacket, jak-o.
jail, karcer-o.

296

ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY.

jam, kompot-o, fruktaj-o.

January, januar-o.

jaw (orifice, opening), faflk-o; (of

the skull), makzel-o; — bone,

makzelost-o.
jealous, 3aluz-a.
jest, serc-i.
Jesus, Jesu-o.
Jew, hebre-o.
jewel, juvel-o.
jingle (intrans.), tint-L
John, Johan-o.
joint, artik-o.
joke, serc-i.

journal, Jurnal-o, revu-o.
journey, vojag-i.
judge, jug-i (p. 228, ftn.).
jug, kruc-o.
juggle, jongl-i.
July, juli-o.
jump, salt-i.
June, juni-o.
jurist, jurist-o.
just (upright), just-a; (exact),

gust-a; (adv.), gust-e, Jus (p.

198, ftn.).

K.

keep, ten-i, gard-i; (preserve),
konserv-i; — in mind, memor-i.

kerosene, petrol-o.

key, slosil-'o; (of piano, etc.),
klav-o.

kill, mortig-i.

kilogram, kilogram-o (284).
kiloliter, kilolitr-o (284).
kilometer, kilometr-o (284).
kind (species), spec-o; (good),

bon-a, bonkor-a; that — ,

what — , etc., see table, 235.
kindness, komplez-o, bonkorec-o.
king, reg-o; — dom, regolando.
kiss, kis-i.
knave, fripon-o.
knee, genu-o.
kneel, genufleks-i.
knit, trik-i.
knock, frap-i.
knot, tuber-o; (tied), ligaj-o; (of

ribbon), bant-o.
know, sci-i; (be acquainted with),

kon-i (117).
kobold, kobold-o.

labor, labor-i; — for the success
or completion of something,
klopod-i.

lace, punt-o; (of a shoe), lac-o.

(be) lacking (intrans.), mank-i.

lake, lag-o.

lamb, safid-o; (meat), safidaj-o.

lame, lam-a.

lamp, lamp-o.

lance, lanc-o.

land, land-o; (estate), bien-o;
(soil), ter-o.

ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY.

297

landscape, pejzag-o.

language, lingv-o.

lantern, lantern-o.

large, grand-a

lark (bird), alattd-o.

last (intrans.), dailr-i; (in a

series), last-a; (previous) pa-

sint-a, antau-a.
latch, ans-o.
late, malfru-a.
Latin, latin-a.
latter, ci-tiu (6i, 62).
lattice, krad-o.

laugh, rid-i (265, p. 206, ftn.).
law, leg-o; — suit, proces-o;

(rule), regul-o.

lawyer, advokat-o, legist-o.

lay, meti, kusig-i; — aside,
demet-i; ' — claim, pretend-i.

layer, tavol-o.

lead, konduk-i.

lead (metal), plumb-o.

leaf, foli-o.

league (alliance), lig-o.

lean (trans.), apog-i, klin-i; (not
fat), malgras-a.

leap, salt-i; — year, superjar-o.
learn, lern-i; (news, etc.), sciig-i.
learned, kler-a.
least (adv.), malplej (80), malpli

multe (81); at — , almenaii.
leather, led-o.
leave (trans.), las-i; — off (in-

trans.), ces-i.

leg, krur-o.

legal, leg-a; — process, proces-o.

lemon, citron-o.

lemonade, citrona]-o, limonad-o.

lend, prunt-i, pruntedon-i.

lens, objektiv-o.

lengthen (trans.), etend-i, pli-

longig-i.
less (adv.), malpli (80); malpli

multe (81).

lesson, lecion-o.

let (trans.), las-i; (rent), luig-i;
(permit), permes-i.

letter (epistle), leter-o; (of the

alphabet), liter-o.
lettuce, laktuk-o.
level, nivel-o; (flat), eben-a.

library, bibliotek-o; (collection of

books), librar-o.
lick, lek-i.
lie (recline), kus-i (239); (tell

falsehoods), mensog-L
Uft, lev-i.
light, lum-a, hel-a; (not heavy),

malpez-a.
lightning, fulm-o.
like, sat-i; (similar), simil-a (p.

206, ftn.) ; see also 250.

limb, membro; (of a tree),
branc-o.

limit, lim-i.

linden, tili-o.

line, lini-o, vic-o, strek-o.

linen, tol-o.

298

ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULAEY.

lion, leon-o.
lip, lip-o.
liquid, fluid-a.
listen, auskult-i.
liter, litr-o (284).
literal, lauliter-a.
literature, literatur-o.

little, malgrand-a; (with slightly
affectionate sense), et-a (198);
{adv.), malmulte, iom (217);
— by —, iom post iom.

live, viv-i; (dwell), Iog-i(i33).

load, sarg-i (p. 206, ftn.).

loan, prunt-i, pruntedon-i.

local, lok-a.

lock, slos-i; (fastening), serur-o.

locomotive, lokomotiv-o.

lodge, log-i.

log, §tip-o.

long, long-a; — for, sopir-i je (p.

206, ftn.).
look, rigard-i; — for, serc-i.

lose, perd-i; (fail to profit), mal-
gajn-i; — time, malfru-i.

lot (fate), sort-o.

loud, lattt-a.

love, am-i; make — , amindum-i.

loyal, fidel-a, lojal-a.

luck, sanc-o; lucky, bonsane-a.

lull, kvietig-i; (to sleep), lul-i.

lunatic, lunatik-o.

lung, pulm-o.

luxury, luks-o.

M.

macaroni, makaroni-o.

macliine, masin-o.

mad, frenez-a.

magazine, gazet-o, jurnal-o, re-
vu-o.

magic, magi-o.

mail, post-o, enpostig-i; — • box,
postkest-o.

maize, maiz-o.

majestic, majest-a.

majesty (term of address), most-o
(258).

make, far-i (see also 214); — mis-
takes, erar-i; — love, amin-
dum-i.

malicious, malic-a.

man, vir-o (p. 154, ftn.).

manage, administr-i, direkt-i; (a
household), mastrum-i.

manner, manier-o; (right or
wrong), mor-o; in that — , in
every — , etc., see table, 233.

mantle, mantel-o.

manufacture, fabrik-i.

manuscript, manuskript-o.

maple, acer-o.

marble (stone), marmor-o.

march, marsad-i.

March, mart-o.

mark, mark-o, sign-o; (official),

stamp-o.
marmalade, marmelad-o.
marry (become married), edzig-i.

ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY.

299

master, mastr-o; (of his profes-
sion or art), majstr-o; — of
Arts (A.M.), magistr-o.

match (for fire), alumet-o.

material, material-o; (cloth),
stof-o.

matter, afer-o.

mature, matur-a.

maximum, maksimum-o.

May, maj-o; (auxiliary verb), see
269, 270.

mayonnaise, majones-a.

mean, signif-i, intenc-i, mal-
nobl-a.

meaning, seno-o.

means, rimed-o; by — of {prep.),
per (64).

measure (trans.), mezur-i.

meat, viand-o.

mechanics, menanik-o.

medical, medicin-a, kuracist-a.

medicine (drug, etc.), kuracil-o;
(science), medicin-o, kurac-
art-o.

meet (trans.), renkont-i, traf-i;
(assemble), kunven-i.

melody, melodi-o.

melon, melon-o.

melt, fluidig-i, fluidig-i, degel-i.

member, membr-o, an-o (145).

memory, memor-o; by — , par-
ker-e, memor-e.

mend, ripar-i; (patch), flik-i.

mention, nom-i, cit-i.

menu, menu-o.

merely (adv.), nur.

merit, merit-i.

merry, gaj-a; make — , festen-i.

merry-go-round, karusel-o.

metal, metal-o.

meter, metr-o (284).

method, metod-o.

middle, mez-o, centr-o.

mien, mien-o.

mild, mild-a.

mile, mejl-o.

milk, lakt-o; (draw the milk of),
melk-i.

mill, muel-o.

millimeter, milimetr-o (284).

million, milion-o.

mine (coal, etc)., min-o; (posses-
sive adj.), mi-a (43, p. 221,
ftn.).

mineral, mineral-o.

minimum, minimum-o.

minister (political), ministr-o;
(clergyman), pastr-o.

minute (time), minut-o; (adj.),
detal-a, malgrand-a.

minutes (of a meeting), proto-
kol-o.

mirror, spegul-o.

miserly, avar-a.

misery, mizer-o.

miss (fail to reach), maltraf-i;
(be missing), mank-i; (notice
the absence of), senti la fores-
ton de; (young lady), frattlin-o
(163).

300

ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY.

mist, nebul-o.

mistake, crar-o.

Mister, Sinjor-o (163, 286).

mix {trans.), miks-i.

mock, mok-i.

mode, fason-o, mod-o.

model, model-o.

moderate, moder-a.

modest, modest-a.

moment, momsnt-o; a — ago,
(adv.), JUS (p. 116, ftn.; p. 198,
ftn.).

monarch, monarh-o.

Monday, lund-o.

money, mon-o; — box, kas-o; —
order, mandat-o.

monk, monah-o.

monkey, simi-o.

month, monat-o.

moon, lun-o.

moral, moral-a, bonmor-a; mor-
als, moroj.

more (adv.), pli (74, 79); (quan-
tity), pli multe (81); (further),
plu (p. 190, ftn.); the — , ju
pli, des pli (84).

morning, maten-o (93).

morsel, pec-o.

most (adv.), plej (74, 79); (quan-
tity), pie] multe (81).

mould, sim-o.

mountain, mont-o.

mourning, funebr-o.

mouse, mus-o.

moustache, lipharoj.
mouth, bus-o; (of river), enflu-o,
elfiu-o.

move (trans.), mov-i; (change

residence) translog-i.
much, mult-a (81); (very), tre.
mud, kot-o.
murmur, murmur-i.
museum, muze-o.
mushroom, fung-o.
music, muzik-o.
must, dev-i (247).
mute, mut-a.
mutton, safaj-o.
mutual, reciprok-a (180), ko-

mun-a.
myopic, niiop-a.
mystery, mister-o.

N.

nail (metal), najl-o; (of the finger

or toe), ung-o.
naive, naiv-a.
naked, nud-a.
name, nom-o.
narrate, rakont-i.
nation, naci-o.
nature, natur-o.
naught, nul-o; (none), neniona

(231).
near, proksim-a (170); (prep.).

apud (120, 159).
necessary, neces-a.

ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULAEY.

301

neck, kol-o.
need, bezon-i.
needle, kudril-o.

negative, ne-a (171); (photo-
graphic), negativ-o.

neighbor, najbar-o.

neither (corej.), nek (31, p. 32,

ftn.); (pronoun and adj.),

neniu (220).

nephew, nev-o.

nerve, nerv-o.

nest, nest-o.

net, ret-o.

neutral, neiitral-a.

never (adv.), neniam (226).

nevertheless (conj.), tamen (p.

32, ftn.).
new, nov-a, fres-a; news, novaj-o.
newspaper, Jurnal-o, tagjurnal-o.
nice, delikat-a.
night, nokt-o.
nine (adj.), naii (136).
nitrogen, azot-o.
no (adv.), ne (27, 66, a); (adj.),

neniu (220) ; — one, — where,

etc., see table, 235.

noble, nobl-a,
nobleman, nobel-o.
nobody (pronoun), neniu (220).
nod (the head), balanc-i (la
k«tpon).

noise, bru-o.

none (adj. and pronoun), neniu
(220); (a(^i).), neniom (231).

non-partisan, neiitral-a.

noon, -tagmez-o.

nor (conj.), nek (31, p. 32, ftn.).

north, nord-o.

Norwegian, norveg-o.

not (adv.), ne (27, 66, a).

note, not-o, bilet-o; — book,

kajer-o; (notice), rimark-i,
not-i.

nothing, nenio (233).

notice, rimark-i, not-i; give — ,
aviz-i.

notwithstanding (prep.), mal-

graii; (conj.), tamen.
nourish, nutr-i.

novel, nov-a; (book), roman-o.
November, novembr-o.
now (adv.), nun.
nude, nud-a.
nullify, nulig-i, neniig-i.

number (quantity), nombr-o;
(numeral), numer-o.

nut, nuks-o.

0.

oak, kverk-o„
(make) oath, ]ur-i.
oats, aven-o.
obey, obe-i (265).

object, objekt-o; (aim), cel-o;
(oppose), kontraiiparol-i, kon-
traiistar-i, protest-i.

objective, objektiv-o.

302

ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY.

obligation (financial), suld-o;

(moral), dev-o.
oblige (compel), devig-i; (render

service), far-i komplezon,

serv-i.
oblique, oblikv-a.
observe, observ-i, rimark-i, not-i.
obstinate, obstin-a.
obstruct, bar-i.

occasion, foj-o (127); okaz-o.
occupation, profesi-o, okup-o,

meti-o.
occupy, okup-i (p. 206, ftn.).
occur, okaz-i.
ocean, ooean-o.
October, oktobr-o.
odor, odor-o.
of (prep.), de (49, 100, 160, 170);

da (99, loi, 103); el (p. 115,

ftn. ; p. 118, ftn.) ; (concerning),

pri (160, 264, c).
offend, ofend-i.

offer, propon-i, prezent-i, ofer-i.
office, ofic-o; (place), ofioej-o.
officer (of organization or firm),

oficist-o; (military or naval),

ofioir-o.
official, oficial-a.
often {adv.), oft-e, multfoj-e.
oh (interjection), ho (273).
oil, ole-o.
olive, oliv-o.
on (prep.), sur; - - account of,

pro (86).
once (adv.), unufoj-e; — on a

time, iam (212); at — , tuj;

— more, bis.
one (adj.), unu (136, 137, 180);

(pronoun), oni (54). See 235.
onion, bulb-o.
only, sol-a; (mere), nur-a.
opera, oper-o; — glasses, lornet-o.
opinion, opini-o.
opportune, oportun-a.
opposed to (prep.), kontrau.
opposite (converse), mal-o (67);

(prep.), kontrafl.
or (conj.), au (p. 32, ftn.).
orange (fruit), orang-o.
orchestra, orkestr-o.
order, ordon-i; (of store, etc.),

mend-i; (methodical or proper

arrangement), ord-o: money

— , mandat-o.
ordinary, ordinar-a.
organ (physical), organ-o; musi-
cal), orgen-o.
organize, organiz-i.
original, original-o.
ornament, ornam-i.
orphan, orf-o.

oscillate (intrans.), balancig-i.
ostracism, ostracism-o.
other, ali-a; (remaining), cet-

er-a; — people's, malpropr-a;

— wise, ali-e.
out of, el (p. 115, ftn.; p. 118,

ftn.).
outline, kontur-o; (profile), pro-

fil-o; (sketch), skiz-o.

ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY.

303

outside {-prep.), ekster (120, 121).

over {prep.), super; (across),
trans; (concerning), pri;
— coat, surtut-o; — shoe, su-
perSu-o; (adv.), (too), tro.

owe, §uld-i.

own, posed-i, propr-a.

ox, bov-o.

oyster, ostr-o.

pack, pak-i.

pad, rembur-i.

paddle, padel-i.

page (of book, etc.), pag-o.

pail, sitel-o.

pain, dolor-o; (effort), pen-o;

take pains, pen-i.
paint, pentr-i; (material), kolori-

gil-o; — brush, penik-o.
pair, par-o.
palace, palac-o.
pale, pal-a.
palisade, palisar-o.
palm (of the hand), polm-o.
pamphlet, brosur-o.
pan, pat-o.
paper (material), paper-o; news-

— , jurnal-o.
paradise, paradiz-o.
paragraph, paragraf-o.
pardon, pardon-i (265).
parallel, paralel-a.
park, park-o.

parlor, salon-o.

parsley, petrosel-o.

parsnip, pastinak-o.

part, part-o; of a work or book,
kajer-o; separate (trans.), dis-
ir-i, apartig-i, disdivid-i.

participle, particip-o.

pass (intrans.), pas-i.

passage, koridor-o.

passenger, pasager-o.

passion, pasi-o.

passive, pasiv-a.

past (prep.), preter (p. 139, ftn.);
(time), estintee-o; (grammati-
cal), estint-o; (bygone), es-
tint-a.

paste (glue), glu-i.

pasteboard, karton-o

pastor, pastr-o.

pastry, kukaj-o.

pasture (trans.), past-i.

patch, flik-i.

path, vojet-o.

patience, pacieno-o.

patient (ill person), kuraoat-o.

patty, pastec-o.

pause, paiiz-i.

pavement, pavim-o; (sidewalk),
trotuar-o.

pay, pag-i; — dues, kotiz-i.

pea, piz-o.

peace, pac-o.

peach, persik-o.

pear, pir-o

304

ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULAEY.

pearl, perl-o.

peculiar, strang-a, kurioz-a.

peddle, kolport-i.

pedestal, piedestal-o.

pedestrian, piedirant-o.

peeling, sel-o.

pen, plum-o; (enclosure), -ej-o
(III).

pencil, krajon-o; hair — , penik-o.

penetrate, penetr-i.

people, popol-o; {indefinite pro-
noun), oni (54).

pepper, pipr-o.

perceive, sent-i; (see), vid-i.

percentage, procent-o; (of profit),
tantiem-o.

perfect, perfekt-a.

perfidious, perfid-a.

perform (act), ag-i; (fulfil), ple-

num-i; (do), far-i.
perfume, parfum-o; (odor), bon-

odor-o.

period, period-o; (of time),
epok-o ;(punctuation), punkt-o.

perish, pere-i.

permit, permes-i.

persecute, persekut-i; (worry),

turment-i, gen-i.
persevere, persist-i.
person, person-o.
perspire, svit-i.
persuade, konvink-i.
pet, dorlot-i.
petroleum, petrol-o.

phantom, fantom-o.

Pharaoh, faraon-o.

pharmacy, farmaci-o; (shop),

apotek-o.
philosopher, filozof-o.
photograph, fotograf-i.
phrase, fraz-o.
physician, kuracist-o.
physics, fizik-o.

pick (choose), elekt-i; (gather),

kolekt-i.
pickle, pekl-i.
picture, bild-o; (portrait), por-

tret-o; — gallery, pinakotek-o.

picturesque, pitoresk-a, pen-

trind-a.
pie, kukaj-o; (patty), pastec-o.
piece, pec-o.
pig, pork-o.
pigeon, kolomb-o.
(be a) pilgrim, pilgrim-i.
pillage, rab-i.
pillar, kolon-o.
pin, pingl-o.
pinch, pinc-i.
pine (tree), pin-o; — for, sopir-i

je.
pineapple, ananas-o.
pinnacle, pint-o.
pioneer, pionir-o.
pious, pi-a.

pipe, tub-o; (for smoking), pip-o,
pitcher, kruc-o.

ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY.

305

pity, kompat-i; (regrettable af-
fair), domag-o.

placard, afis-o.

place, lok-o; (for something),

-ej-o (ill); (broad, short street

or open space), plac-o; (put),

met-i.
plait, plekt-i.

plan, plan-o, projekt-o, skiz-o.
plane, plat-a.
planet, planed-o.
plank, tabul-o.
plant, plant-i; (vegetable growth),

kreskaj-o, vegeta]-o.
plate, plat-o; (dish)teler-o.
platform (railway), peron-o.
play, lud-i; (music), muzik-i;

(theatrical), teatraj-o.
player (theatrical), aktor-o.
pleasant, agrabl-a, dolc-a, afabl-a.
please, plac-i (265) ; kontentig-i,

far-i plezuron al; (iu requests),

bonvolu, mi petas.
pleasure, plezur-o; take — in,

gu-i.
plot, konspir-i.
plow, plug-i.
plum, prun-o.
plumber, plumbist-o.
plunder, rab-i.
plural, multenombr-o.
pneumatic, pneumatik-a.
pocket, pos-o.
poem, poem-o.

poet, poet-o.

poetry, poezi-o.

point, punkt-o; (sharp), pint-o;

— out, montr-i.
poise (trans.), balanc-i; (of man-
ner), aplomb-o.
poison, venen-o.
pole, stang-o; (shaft of vehicle),

timon-o; (geographical), po-

lus-o.
Pole, pol-o.
police, polic-o.
polite, gentil-a.
politics, politik-o.
polish, polur-i; polished, polu-

rit-a, glat-a.
pomp, pomp-o.
popular, popular-o, popol-a.
porcelain, porcelan-o.
porch, verand-o; (stoop), peron-o;

(balcony), balkon-o.
pork, porkaj-o.
port, haven-o.
portion, porci-o, part-o.
portrait, portret-o.
possess, posed-i.
possible, ebl-a (161, 162); kred-

ebl-a (270).
post (pole), stang-o; (mail),

post-o; — card, postkart-o;

— paid, afrankit-e.
postage (cost), postelspezo; —

stamp, postmark-o.
poster, afis-o.
pot, pot-o.

306

ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY.

potato, terpom-o; sweet — ,

batat-o.
pound, pist-i; (measure), funt-o.
pour (liquids), vers-i; (as in a

chute), sut-i.
powder, pudr-o.
power, pov-o, potenc-o.
practice, praktik-i.
praise, laiid-i.
pray, preg-i.
preach, predik-i.
precise, preciz-a, gust-a.
predestined, fatal-a.
prefer, preter-i.
prefix, prefiks-o.
premium, premi-o.
prepare, prepar-i.
prepay, afrank-i.
presence, ceest-o, apudest-o; in

the — of (prep.), ce (125),

antati.
present (gift), donao-o; (time),

estanteo-o, estant-a, nun-a

(171) ; (in attendance), ceest-

ant-a.
present, prezent-i, donao-i, don-i.
preserve (keep), ten-i; (keep

safe), konserv-i; (food), kom-

pot-o, konfitaj-o.
preside, prezid-i.
president, prezidant-o.
press, prem-i; (print), pres-i;

(wardrobe), srank-o; (be ur-
gent), urg-i.
pretend (make pretext of), pre-

tekst-i; (feign), sajnig-i; (lay

claim), pretend-i.
price, prez-o, kost-o,
prick, pik-i.
priest, pastr-o.
prince, princ-o, regid-o.
principal, precip-a, cef-a (p. 221,

ftn.).
print, pres-i.

prize, sat-i; (premium), premi-o.
prized, kar-a, altetaksat-a, sa-

tat-a.
problem, problem-o.
process, metod-o; (legal), pro

ces-o.
proclaim, proklam-i.
procrastinate, prokrast-i.

produce, produkt-i; — a result,
efik-i; (give birth to), nask-i.

profession, profesi-o. .

professor, profesor-o.

profile, profil-o.

profit, profit-i; (percentage), tan-

tiem-o.
profound, profund-a.
progress, progres-i.
project, projekt-o.
promenade, promen-i.
promise, promes-i.
propensity, inklin-o, em-o (192).
(be) proper, dec-i.
property, propra]-o, posedaj-o;

(land), bien-o; (characteristic),

ec-o (202).

ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY.

307

proportional, proporoi-a.
propose, propon-i, sugesti-i.
prose, proz-o; piece of — , pro-

zajo.
prosecute, persekut-i.
prosper, prosper-i.
protect, protekt-i, gard-i.
protest, protest-i.
proud, fier-a (p. 206, ftn.).
prove, pruv-i; (test), prov-i.
provoke, incit-i, ekscit-i, kailz-i,

nask-i, kolerig-i.
psalm, psalm-o.
public, publik-o.
publish, publikig-i, eldon-i.
pudding, puding-o.
pull, tir-i.
pump, pump-i.
pumpkin, kukurb-o.
punish, pun-i.
pure, pur-a.
purfie, pistaj-o.
purple, purpur-a.
purpose, cel-i, intenc-i.
■push, pus-i; (shove), §ov-i.
put, met-i; — off, prokrast-i.

quality, ec-o (202) ; (texture,
etc.), kvalito.

quantity, kvant-o; any — , a cer-
tain — , iom (217); see table,
23s.

quarter (of a city), kvartal-o;

(fourth), kvaron-o; — ly, tri-

monat-a.
question, demand-o; (problem),

problem-o; (doubt), dub-o.
quick, rapid-a; (lively), viv-a.
quiet, kviet-a, trankvil-a, silent-a.
quince, oidoni-o.
quite (adv.), tut-e.
quote, cit-i.

R.

rabbit, kunikl-o.

race (people), ras-o.

radish, rafan-o; horse — , armo-

raci-o.
radius, radi-o.
rag, cifon-o.
raging, furioz-a.
rail, rel-o; — way, fervoj-o; —

way carriage, vagon-o; — way

station, stacidom-o.

rain, pluv-o; — bow, cielark-p.
raise, lev-i.
raisin, sekvinber-o.
rank, rang-o; (grade), grad-o.
rap,.frapet-i.
rapid, rapid-a.
rascal, fripon-o, kanajl-o.
rasp, rasp-i.
raspberry, framb-o.
rat, rat-o.

rate, taks-i; (schedule of prices),
tarif-o, prezar-o; (percentage).

308

ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY.

procent-o; at the — of {prep.),
po (175).

rational, prudent-a, racional-a.

raucous, radk-a.

raven, korv-o.

ravishing, rav-a.

raw, nekuirit-a.

ray (of light), radi-o.

reach, ating-i; (a goal), traf-i.

read, leg-i.

ready, pret-a.

real, efektiv-a, real-a, ver-a.

reap, rikolt-i.

reason (exert the power of reason-
ing), rezon-i; (cause), kaiiz-o;
(motive), kial-o; for what — ,
for any — , etc., see table, 235.

reasonable, prudent-a.

rebate, rabat-i.

recall, revok-i; (to memory), re-
memor-i; (to another's mem-
ory), rememorig-i.

receive, ricev-i; (accept), akcept-i;
(money), enspez-i.

receipt (for payment), kvitanc-o.

reckon, kalkul-i.

recent, nov-a, antatinelong-a(9o).

receptacle, uj-o (237); (for one
object), ing-o (i8i).

recess (alcove), alkov-o; (vaca-
tion), libertemp-o.

reciprocal, reciprok-a (180).

recite, deklam-i.

recline, kus-i (239).

recommend, rekomend-i.
recompense, rekompens-i.

recover (find), retrov-i; (get

well), resanig-i.
red, rug-a; reddish, duberug-a.
reduction (of price), rabat-o.
refine, rafin-i.
refuse, rifuz-i, malpernies-i.
refute, refut-i.
regale, regal-i.
region, region-o.

register {trans.), registr-i; (let-
ters), rekomend-i.

regret, bedailr-i; (be penitent
for), pent-i.

regrettable, bedaiirind-a; — af-
fair (pity), domag-o.

regulation, regul-o, leg-o.

reign, reg-i.

rejoice, goj-i (116, p. 206, ftn.).

relate, rilat-i (266); (tell), ra-
kont-i.

relative (person), parenc-o.
religion, religi-o.
rely, konfid-i; fid-i (p. 206, ftn.).
remain, rest-i; remaining (other),
ceter-a.

remember, memor-i; (recall to
memory), rememor-i.

render, far-i, ig-i (214); (an ac-
count), don-i, prezent-i, liver-i.
renown, fam-o, glor-o.

rent, lu-i; (let), luig-i; (farm out),
farm-i; (price), luprez-o.

ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY.

309

repair, ripar-i; (patch), flik-i.

repeat, ripet-i.

repent, pent-i.

report, raport-i.

repose, ripoz-i.

represent, reprezent-i.

reproach, ripro6-i.

republic, respublik-o.

repulse, repus-i, repel-i.

request, pet-i.

require, postul-i; (need), bezon-i.

rescue, sav-i.

reside, log-i.

respect, respekt-i.

rest (repose), ripoz-i; (remain),

rest-i; ( — upon), apog-i sur.
restaurant, restoraci-o.
result, rezult-i.
resume, resum-o.
return (go back), reir-i; (come

back), reven-i; (give back),

redon-i.
revery, rev-o.

review (magazine), revu-o.
reward, rekompenc-i.
rhubarb, rabarb-o.
rib, rip-o.
ribbon, ruband-o.
rice, riz-o.
rich, rio-a.
ride, rajd-i; (in veliicle, boat,

etc.), vetur-i.
ridicule, mok-i; worthy of —

(ridiculous), ridind-a.

right, prav-a; (to something),
rajt-o; (not left), dekstr-a.

right-angled, ort-a.

ring (intrans.), sonor-i; (circlet),
ring-o.

ringlet (of hair), bukl-o.

ripe, matur-a.

river, river-o.

road, voj-o; (broad roadway),

sose-o.
roam, vag-i.
roar, mug-i.
roast, rost-i.
rob, rab-i, stel-i.
robber, rabist-o.
robe, rob-o.
Robert, Robert-o.
roguish, petol-a; (rascally), fri-

pon-a.
roll (trans.), rul-i; (something

around something else), volv-i;

(bread), bulk-o; (list), list-o,

registr-o.
roof, tegment-o.
room, cambr-o; (space), spac-o.
root, radik-o.
rose, roz-o.
(by) rote, parker-e.
round, rond-o; (of ladder), ^tu-

pet-o; (roundabout) (prep.),

cirkau (89, 120, 159, 160).
routine, rutin-o.
row (boats), rem-i.
royalty, regec-o; (share of profit)

tantiem-o.

310

ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY.

rub, frot-i.

ruin, ruin-o.

rule, reg-i; (draw lines), lini-i;

(regulation), regal-o.
rumor, fam-o; rumored, laudir-a.
run, kur-i; (of fluids), flu-i.
Russian, rus-o.
rust, rust-i.

S.

sack, sak-o; (plunder), rab-i.

sacred, sankt-a.

sacrifice, ofer-i, oferdon-i.

saddle, sel-o.

safe, sendanger-a, senrisk-a;

(chest), monkest-o.
sail, vel-o.
salad, salat-o.
salary, salajr-o.
salt, sal-o.
salute, salut-i.
same, sam-a.
sample, specimen-o.
sand, sabl-o.
sap, suk-o.
sardine, sarden-o.
satchel, valiz-o.
sated, sat-a (p. 206, ftn.).
satin, atlas-o.
satisfied, kontent-a (p. 206, ftn.) ;

(of hunger), sat-a (p. 206, ftn.).
Saturday, sabat-o.
sausage, kolbas-o.

sauce, sauc-o.

saucer, subtas-o, teleret-o.

saucy, petol-a, malgentil-a, insul-

tem-a.
savage, sovag-a.
save, sav-i; (keep), konserv-i;

(economize), spar-i; (prep.),

krom, escepte de.
saw, seg-i.
say, dir-i (77).

scales (for weighing), pesil-o.
scarcely (adv.), apenau.
scent (trans.), fiar-i.
schedule (of rates), tarif-o.
science, scienc-o.
scissors, tondil-o.
Scot (Scotchman), skot-o.
scoundrel, kanajl-o, fripon-o.
scrape, skrap-i.
screen, sirm-i.
screw, sraiib-o; ■ — driver, Srafib-

turnil-o.
sculpture, skulpt-i.
sea, mar-o.
seal, sigel-i.

season (of the year), sezon-o.
second (of time), sekund-o; (in

order), dua; a — time (adv.),

duafoje, bis.
secret, sekret-o.
secretary, sekretari-o.
section, sekci-o, part-o, er-o

(276).
see, vid-i; — to, zorg-i pri.

ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY.

311

seed, sem-o.

seek, serc-i; — advice of, kon-

sult-i.
seem, sajn-i; — ing, sajn-a, kva^

zatt-a.
seize, kapt-i (p. 206, ftn.).
select, elekt-i.

self (reflexive), see 39, 40, 44;

(intensive), mem (219); see

also ftn., p. 132.
self-command, aplomb-o.
sell, vend-i.
senate, senat-o.
send, send-i.

sense, prudent-o, sag-o; (mean-
ing), senc-o; (feeling), sent-o.

sentence, fraz-o; (legal), jug-o,
kondamn-o.

separate (intrans.), disig-i, disir-i;

(distinct), apart-a.
September, septembr-o.
serene, trankvil-a.
series, seri-o, vic-o.
serious, serioz-a, grav-a.
serve, serv-i; (be good for), taug-i

por.
set, met-i; (of the sun), subir-i;

(type), kompost-i; — free,

liberig-i; — out (start), forir-i,

ekir-i.
seven (adj.), sep (136).
several, kelk-aj, kelk-e.
severe, sever-a.
sew, kudr-i.

shade (shadow), ombr-o; (tint)

nuanc-o; (screen), Mrmil-o.
shaft (of vehicle), timon-o.
shake (trans.), sku-i; (oscillate),

sancel-i; — hands, manprem-i.
sham, pretekst-i.
shape, form-o; — ly, beltali-a.
share, partopren-i, divid-i, part-o,

poroi-o.
sharp, akr-a; (pointed), pint-a.
shatter, frakas-i.
shave, raz-i.
shawl, §al-o.

she (pronoun), si (32, 37, 42).
shear, tond-i.
sheep, laf-o.
shelf, bret-o.
shell, sel-o; (of moUusk), konk-o;

to remove the — , senselig-i.
shelter, sirm-i. ,

shepherd, paltist-o.
shield, sild-o; (protect), ^irm-i.
shin-bone, tibi-o.
shine, bril-i, lum-i.
ship, sip-o.
shirt, cemiz-o.
shoe, su-o.

shoot (with gun, etc.), paf-i.
shop, butik-o.
shore, bord-o, marbord-o.
short, mallong-a; — sighted, mi-

op-a; — hand, st'enografi-o.
shoulder, sultr-o.
shove, sov-i.

312

ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY.

shovel, sovel-i.

show (trans.), montr-i.

shrill, akr-a, akrason-a.

shun, evit-i.

shut (trans.), ferm-i.

side, flaBk-o; — board, teler-
mebl-o; — walk, trotuar-o;
— wise, oblikv-a.

sift, kribr-i.

sigh, sopir-i (p. 206, ftn.).

sign, sign-o; — the name, sub-
skrib-i.

signify, signif-i.

silent, silent-a (239).

silk, silk-o.

silver, argent-o.

similar, simil-a (p. 206, ftn.).

simple, simpl-a.

sin, pek-i.

since (con].), car, tial ke (83);
(prep.), de, depost (89); (adv.),
de tiam.

sing, kant-i.

single, sol-a, unuop-a; — man
(unmarried man), frattl-o.

sit, sid-i (239).

six (adj.), ses (136).

sketch, skiz-i.

skill, lertec-o; trial of — , kon-
kurs-o.

skin (human), hatit-o; (of ani-
mals), fel-o.

skirt, jup-o.

sky, ciel-o.

slanting, oblikv-a, klin-a.
slate (stone), ardez-o.
slaughter, buc-i.
slave, sklav-o.

sleep, dorm-i; lull to — , lul-i.
sleeve, manik-o.
slide, glit-i.
slime, slim-o.
slipper, pantofl-o.
sly, ruz-a.
smear, smir-i.

smell (trans.), flar-i; (intrans.),
odor-i.

smile, ridet-i.
smoke, fum-i.
smooth, glat-a; (polished), pol-

urit-a.
sneeze, tern-i.
snow, neg-i.

so (conj.), do (p. 32, ftn.); (adv.),
(thus), tiel (88, 156); (there-
fore), tial (78) ; — much, tiom
(104, 164).

society, societ-o.

Socrates, Sokrat-o.

sofa, kanap-o.

soft, mol-a.

soil, ter-o; soiled, malpur-a.

soldier, soldat-o; (professional),
militist-o.

sole, sol-a; (of foot), pland-o; (of
shoe), ledpland-o.

solemn, solen-a.

some, kelk-a, kelk-e, iom (217);

ENGLISH-ESPERAHTO VOCABULARY.

313

— one, — how, etc., see table,

235.
son, fil-o.

soon (adv.), baldafi.
sorcerer, sor6ist-o.
sort, spec-o, klas-o; (put in order),

ordig-i, enfakig-i.
soul, anim-o.

sound (intrans.), son-i; (of bells),

sonor-i; (in good condition),

bonstat-a.
soup, sup-o.
sour, acid-a, maldolc-a.
south, sud-o.
sow, sem-i.
space, spac-o.
spacious, vast-a, grandspac-a,

grandampleks-a.
Spaniard, hispan-o.
spare (save), spar-i; (pardon),

pardon-i.

sparrow, paser-o.

speak, parol-i (77).

spear, lano-o.

special, special-a, apart-a.

specialty, fak-o.

species, spec-o.

specimen, specimen-o, model-o.

spectre, fantom-o.

speed, rapid-o, rapidec-o.

spell, silab-i; (witchcraft), sor-

6aj-o.
spend (money), elspez-i; (time),

pasig-i.

speso, spes-o (285).

spider, arane-o.

spin, spin-i.

spinach, spinac-o.

spite, malic-o; in — of, (prep.),

malgraii, spite.
splash (trans.), plaild-i.
splendor, pomp-o, bril-o, bele-

geo-o.
split (trans.), fend-i.
spoil (trans.), difekt-i.
spoke (of wheel), radi-o.
spoon, kuler-o.
spot, makul-i.
spout (liquids), sprue-i.
spring (season), printemp-o; (of

water), font-o.
sprite, kobold-o, fe-o.
spruce (tree), pice-o.
spurt (of liquids), §pruc-i.
spy, spion-o; (catch sight of),

ekvid-i; — glass, lorn-o.
square, kvadrat-o; (public),

plac-o.
stain, makul-i.
stair (staircase), stupar-o.
stag, cerv-o.

stake (of palisade), palis-o.
stamp (officially), stamp-i; (with

foot), piedfrap-i; postage — ,

po§tmark-o.
stand, star-i (239); (endure),

sufer-i, elport-i.
standard (model), model-o; (flag),

standard-o.

314

ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY.

Star, stel-o; (any heavenly body),
astr-o.

starch, amel-o.

state (condition), stat-o; (politi-
cal), stat-o; (governed body),
regn-o.

station (state), stat-o; (railway,
etc.), staci-o, staoidom-o.

stay, rest-i.

steady, firm-a, konstant-a, nemo-
vebl-a.

steal, stel-i, rab-i (252).

steam, vapor-o.

steel, stal-o.

steep, krut-a.

step, pas-i; (of stairs), stup-o.

stern, sever-a.

stew (trans.), stuf-i.

stick, baston-o; (adhere), al-
gluig-i.

still (silent), silent-a; (adv.),
ankorau (p. 112, ftn.); jam
(p. 124, ftn.); (conj.), tamen
(p. 32, ftn.).

stimulate, stimul-i, incit-i.

sting, pik-i.

stipulate, kondic-o.

stocking, §trump-o.

stomach, stomak-o.

stone, ston-o.

stoop, klinig-i; (entrance porch),
peron-o.

stop (intrans.), halt-i; (leave off),
ces-i; — up, §top-i.

stopper, stopil-o.

store (shop), butik-o; (ware-
house), magazen-o, konser-
vej-o, tenej-o.

story (tale), fabel-o, rakont-o;
(of house), etag-o.

stove, forn-o.

straight, rekt-a.

strange, strang-a, kurioz-a; (for-
eign), fremd-a.

strap, rimen-o.

straw, pajl-o.

strawberry, frag-o.

streak, stri-o; make a — , strek-i.

street, strat-o; — arab, bub-o.

street-car, tram veturil-o ; — line,
tramvoj-o.

stress, akcent-o; (force), fort-o.

stretch (trans.), etend-i; (forci-
bly), strec-i.

string, snur-o; (shoelace), la6-o;
— bean, tazeol-o.

strike, frap-i, bat-i; (of laborers),
strik-o; — out, trastrek-i.

strip (of paper, cloth, etc.), ban-
derol-o; — off, senig-i (p. 206,
ftn.).

stripe, stri-o.

strive, pen-i.

strong, fort-a.

struggle, barakt-i.

student, student-o; (person study-
ing), studant-o.

study, stud-i.

stuff, Itof-o; (furniture, etc.),
rembur-i.

ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY.

315

stump, stump-o.

style, stil-o, mod-o, fason-o.

subject (theme), tem-o; (gram-
matical), subjekt-o; (ruled),
regat-o.

subscribe, subskrib-i; (to maga-
zine, etc.), abon-i.

substance, substanc-o.

succeed, sukces-i; (fare well),
prosper-i; (follow), sekv-i,
postven-i.

succulent, suk-a, sukplen-a.

such, tia (55); (adv.), tiel (88).

sudden, subit-a, neatendit-a.

suffer, sufer-i, toler-i; (permit),
permes-i.

suffice, sufic-i.

suffix, sufiks-o.

suffocate (trans.), sufok-i.

sugar, suker-o.

suggest, sugesti-i, propon-i.

suit (of clothes), vest-oj, kom-
plet-o; (at law), proces-o.

suitable, konven-a, konform-a,
taug-a, dec-a.

suite (of rooms), apartament-o.

sulphur, sulfur-o.

sum, sum-o; (total), tut-o.

summarize, resum-i.

summer, somer-o; — house,
laiib-o.

summit, pint-o, supr-o.

sun, sun-o.

Sunday, dimanc-o.

superior, super-a; (person), su-

perul-o.
superstition, superstic-o.
supply, liver-i, proviz-i.
suppose, supoz-i, opini-i.
sure, cert-a.
surface, supraj-o.
surprise, surpriz-i.
suspect, suspekt-i.
suspend, pendig-i.
suspenders, selk-o.
swallow, glut-i; (bird), hirund-o.
swamp, marc-o.
swan, oign-o.
swear, Jur-i.
Swede, sved-o.
sweep (floors, etc.), bala-i.
sweet, dolc-a; — potato, batat-o.
sweetmeat, bombon-o, sukeraj-o,

konfitaj-o; be fond of — ,

frand-i.
swim, nag-i.
swine, pork-o.
swing (trans.), sving-i; (balance),

balanc-i (279).
Swiss, svis-o.
swoon, sven-i.
sword, glav-o.
syllable, silab-o.
Syracuse, Sirakuz-o.

table (furniture), tabl-o; (tabula-
tion), tabel-o.

316

ENGLISH-ESPEBANTO VOCABULAKY.

tail, vost-o.

tailor, tajlor-o.

take, pren-i (p. 206, ftn.); (mag-
azines, etc.), abon-i; — in
(money), enspez-i; — place,
okaz-i; — note of, observ-i,
rimark-i; — oath, Jur-i; —
steps toward accomplishing,
klopod-i; — pleasure in, gu-i;
— the attention of, distr-i.

tale, fabel-o.

talent, talent-o.

tall, alt-a, altkresk-a, grand-a.

talon, ungeg-o.

tap (rap), frapet-i; (faucet),
kran-o.

tariff, tarif-o.

task, task-o.

taste, gust-o, gustum-i.

tax, impost-o.

tea, te-o; — caddy, teuj-o (i8i);

— pot, tekruc-o.
teach, instru-i.

tear, sir-i; (of the eye), larm-o.
tease, turmentet-i, cagren-i.
tedious, ted-a, enuig-a, laoig-a.
telegraph, telegraf-i.
telephone, telefon-i.
telescope, teleskop-o.
tell, dir-i, rakont-i (77) ; — lies,

mensog-i.
temper, humor-o; lose the — ,

koler-i.
temple (of the head), tempi-o;

(building), templ-o.

tempt, tent-i.

ten (adj.), dek (136).

tender, delikat-a, mol-a, kares-a.

tenor (voice), tenor-o; (course),
daiir-o.

tent, tend-o.

term (word), termin-o; (condi-
tion), kondic-o; (time), tem-
plim-o.

terrace, teras-o.

territory, teritori-o.

terror, terur-o.

test, prov-i, ekzamen-i.

texture, kvalit-o; (thing woven),
teksaj-o.

than (conj.), ol (82, 97, 98).

thank, dank-i (265).

that {conj.), ke (53, 83, 105, 259,
262) ; {pronoun), tiu (56) ; tio
(233, 234) ; — kind, tia (65) ;
{adv.), tiel (88, 156); — way,
tiamanier-e, tiel (88); —
much, tiel mult-e, tiom (104,
164); (when) {adv.), kiam
(155); (because), seep. 222,ftQ.

thaw {intrans.), degel-i.

the {article), la (11, 47, 201, 280,

a); {adv.), ju, des (84).

theatre, teatr-o.

theme, tem-o.

then {conj.), do (p. 32, ftn.);
{adv.), tiam (73); (after-
wards), post-e.

theory, teori-o.

there {adv.), tie (68); {adv. call-

ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY.

317

ing attention), jen (228, p. 216,

ftn.); see also 51.
therefore (adv.), tial (78); pro

tio, sekv-e.
they (pronoun), ili (32, 37> 42);

{indefinite), oni (54).
thick, dik-a, dens-a.
thigh, femur-o.
thing, afer-o, objekt-o, aj-o (227) ;

any — , what — , etc., see table,

ass-
think, pens-i; (have the opinion),

opini-i.
(be) thirsty, soif-i.
this (pronoun), tio ci (233, 234) ;

(pronoun and adj.), tiu ci(6o) ;

all — , cio ci. See table, 235.
thong, rimen-o.
thorn, dorn-o.

thou (pronoun), ci (p. 15, ftn., 40).
though (conj.), kvankam; as — ,

kvazafi (250).
thousand (adj.), mil (142).

thread, faden-o; — a needle,
enkudrilig-i fadenon.

threaten, minac-i.

three (adj.), tri (136).

threshold, S03I-0.

thrifty, §parem-a.

throat, gorg-o.

throne, tron-o.

throng, amas-o, ar-o (126).

through (prep.), tra (46, 160);
(by means of), per (64) ; (be-
cause of), pro (86), de (170).

throw, jet-i.

thumb, dika fingr-o.

thunder, tondr-i.

Thursday, jaild-o.

thus (adv.), tiel (88, 156), tia-
manier-e.

ticket, bilet-o; — window, gi6et-o.

tickle, tikl-i.

tie, lig-i; (shoes, etc.), lac-i.

tiger, tigr-o.

tile, kahel-o; (brick), brik-o.

till (money box), kas-o; (prep.),
gis (46, 89); — the soil, ter-
kultur-i.

time (in general), temp-o; (occa-
sion), foj-o (127); (epoch),
epok-o; (of day), hor-o.

tin (metal), stan-o; — plate
(sheet iron covered with tin),
lad-o.

tinkle, tint-i.

tint, nuanc-o, kolor-o.

tire (trans.), lacig-i, enuig-i;
(pneumatic), pneiimatik-o.

to (prep.), al (46, 160, 251, 252);
gis (46, 89).

toad, buf-o.

toast (bread), panrostaj-o; (senti-
ment), tost-o.

tobacco, tabak-o.

today (adv.), hodiail (93, 171).

toe, piedfingr-o

toilet, tualet-o.

tolerate, toler-i, sufer-i.

tomato, tomat-o.

318

ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY.

tomb, tomb-o,

tomorrow (adv.), morgatt (93,
171).

tone, ton-o.

tongue (of the body), lang-o; (of
vehicle), timon-o; (language),
lingv-o.

too (adv.), tro; (too much), tro
multe, tro.

tool, il-o (63).

tooth, dent-o.

top, supr-o.

torment, turment-i.

total, tut-o.

touch, tus-i; (feel with the fin-
gers, etc.), palp-i; sense of — ,
palpad-o; — the heart of,
kortu§-i.

toward (prep.), al (46, 160, 251,
252).

tower, tur-o; — above, super-
star-i.

trace, sign-o, postsign-o.

trade (occupation), meti-o; (com-
merce), komerc-o; (exchange),
intersang-i.

train (of cars), vagonar-o; (of
dress), trenaj-o.

tram, tram-o; — way, tramvoj-o;
— car, tramveturil-o.

tranquil, trankvil-a, kviet-a.

translate, traduk-i.

travel, vojag-i; (by vehicle),
vetur-i.

tray, plet-o.

treacherous, perfid-a.

treasure, trezor-o.

treasurer, kasist-o.

treasury, kas-o.

treat (in speech or writing),

trakt-i; (for illness), kurac-i;

(act towards), kondut-i kon-

traii; (regale), regal-i.
treatise, traktat-o.
tree, arb-o.

tremble, trem-i; (vacillate), San-
celig-i.

trial, juga auskultado, esplo-
rad-o; (of skill), konkurs-o;
(affliction), malgoj-o, sufer-o;
(test), prov-o, ekzamen-o; (at-
tempt), prov-o.

trifle, bagatel-o.

triumph, triumf-o.

tropic, tropik-o.

trot, trot-i.

trousers, pantalon-o.

trunk (chest with lid), kofr-o;
(of tree), trunk-o.

trust, fid-i, konfid-i (p. 206, ftn.);
(financial), trust-o.

truth, ver-o.

try (legally), jug-i; (strive), pen-i;

(attempt, test), prov-i (p. 228,

ftn.).
tub, kuv-o.
tube, tub-o.
tuber, tuber-o.
Tuesday, mard-o.

ENGLISH-ESFEEATTO VOCABULAEY.

319

tumbler (for drinking), glas-o;

(juggler), jonglist-o.
tune, ari-o, melodi-o.
Turk, turk-o.
turkey, meleagr-o.
turn (trans.), turn-i; (in a series))

vic-o.
turnip, nap-o.
turnstile, gicet-o.
twilight, krepusk-o.
twist (trans.), tord-i.
twitter, pep-i.
two (adj.), du (136).
tyrant, tiran-o.

TT.

umbrella, ombrel-o.

uncle, onkl-o.

unanimous, unuvoc-a, unuan-
im-a.

uncommon, kurioz-a, nekonaun-a.

unconcerned, indiferent-a (p.
162, ftn.); nezorgem-a.

under (prep.), sub (121, 160).

underline, substrek-i.

understand, kompren-i.

undertake, entrepren-i; — initia-
tive work, klopod-i.

undeviating, rekt-a.

unfailing (adv.), nepr-e, cert-e.

unimportant, indiferent-a (p.
162, ftn.), negrav-a.

union, unuig-o, unuig-o, kunig-o,
kunig-o.

universe, umvers-o.
university, universitat-o.
until (prep.), gis (89)
up (adv.), supre, supren (121);

— to, gis (46).
upholster, rembur-i.
upper, supr-a.
upon (prep.), sur (160).
upright, just-a (p. 198, ftn.);

(vertical), vertikal-a.
urge, urg-i, insiste pet-i.
upset (trans.), renvers-i.

utmost, ekstrem-a, ebl-o (161,
see also 162).

(be) vacant, vak-i, esti neoku-

pata.
vacillate, sancelig-i.
vagabond, vagist-o.
vain (futile), van-a; senutil-a,

senfrukt-a; (proud), vant-a,

fier-a; in — , vane.
valise, valiz-o.
valley, val-o.
value (appraise), taks-i; (like),

sat-i; have the — of, valor-i.
vanqtiish, venk-i.
vapor, vapor-o.
varied, divers-a, malsimil-a.
vase, vaz-o.
vast, vast-a, grand-a.
vaunt, fanfaron-i, vantparol-L
veal, bovidaj-o (2*7, c).

320

ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY.

vegetable (edible), legom-o;

(plant growth), vegetaj-o,

kreskaj-o (227, a).
vegetarian, vegetar-a.
vegetate, veget-i.
veil, vual-o.
vein, vejn-o.
velvet, velur-o.
veranda, verand-o.
verify, konstat-i, kontrol-i.
vermicelli, vermicel-o.
verse, vers-o; (poesy), poezi-o.
vertical, vertikal-a.
very (very much) {adv.), tre, tre

multe; (adj.), sam-a, ident-a,

(intensive) mem (219).
vex, cagren-i.
vibrate (intrans.), vibr-i.
vice (wickedness), malvirt-o ;

(prefix), vie-.
vie, konkur-i.
village, vilag-o.
vindication, apologi-o.
vinegar, vinagr-o.
violet, viol-o.
violin, violon-o.
virtue, virt-o.
visage, vizag-o.
visit, vizit-i.
vivid, hel-a.
voice, voc-o.
volume (book), volum-o; (of a

body), volumen-o.
vote, vocdon-i, balot-i.

vowel, vokal-o.
voyage, vojag-i.

W,

wade, vad-i.

waffle, vafi-o.

wager, vet-i.

wages, salajr-o.

wait (wait for), atend-i; — on,

serv-i.
waiter (in restaurant, etc.), kel-

ner-o.
waist, tali-o; — coat, vest,-o
wake (trans.), vek-i.
walk, mars-i; (for pleasure),

promen-i; (of park, etc.), ale-o;

side — , trotuar-o.
wall, m.ur-o.
waltz, vals-i.
wander, vag-i.
want (need), bezon-i; (desire),

dezir-i, vol-i; (be lacking),

mank-i; (extremity), mizereg-o.

war, milit-i.

wardrobe (garments), vestar-o;

(furniture), srank-o, vesto-

srank-o.
warehouse, magazen-o.
warm, varm-a; make — , varm-

ig-i, hejt-i.
warn, avert-i; (give notice),

aviz-i, antatisciig-i.
wash, lav-i.
waste (prodigality), malspar-o;

ENGLISH-ESPERANTO VOCABULARY.

321

(refuse), forjetaj-o; (desert),

dezert-o.
watch (look at), rigardad-i;

(timepiece), poshorlog-o; — ■

over, gard-i.
water, akv-o; — color, akvarel-o;

— fall, kaskad-o.
wave, ond-o; (flutter, brandish),

flirt-i, sving-i.
wax, vaks-o.

way (manner), manier-o; (cus-
tom), kutim-o; (method), me-

tod-o; (means), rimed-o;

(road), voj-o; — in, enirejo;

this — , any — , etc., see table,

235-
we {pronoun), ni (32, 37).
wear, port-i; — out, elua;-!.
(be) wearied, enu-i (p. 206,

ftn.).
weather, veter-o; — cock, vento-

flag-o.
weave, teks-i; (plait), plekt-i.
Wednesday, merkred-o.
week, sema]n-o.
weep, plor-i.

weigh (trans.), pes-i; (intrant.),
(be heavy), pez-i; (meditate
upon), pripens-i (264, c).

welcome, bonven-i; bone ak-
oept-i; you are — , ("no thanks
needed "), estas nenio, volonte
farite.

well (healthy), san-a; (for water),
put~o; (adv.), bon-e; (interjec-
tion), nu (273), bon-e (p. 216,

ftn.); — informed, kler-a; —
nigh (adv.), preskaii.

west, okcident-o.

wet, malsekig-i, tremp-i.

whale, balen-o.

what (pronoun), kio (233, 234);
(pronominal adj.), kiu (106,
146); — kind, — way, —
time, etc., see table, 235.

wheat, tritik-o.
wheel, rad-o.

when (adv.), kiam (125, 15s);
(while), dum (96).

where (adv.), kie (118, 151);
— fore, Idal (129), tial (78).

whether (conj.), cu (30, 66, a; p.
38, ftn.).

which (pronoun), kio (233, 234);
(pronoun and adj.), kiu (106,
146); — way, — kind, etc.
see table, 235.

while (prep.), dum (120, 159);
(conj.), dum (96); (conces-
sive), kvankam; a — , iom
da tempo.

whip, vip-i.

whistle, fajf-i; (hiss), sibl-i.

white, blank-a; whitish, dube-
blank-a.

who (pronoun), kiu (106, 143);
whose, kies (107, 147).

whole (entire), tut-a (p. 130,
ftn.).

why (adv.), kial (129), pro kio.

wicket, gicet-o.

322

EKGLISH-ESPEBANTO VOCABULAEY.

wide, larg-a; make — , plilargig-i,
etend-i.

widow, vidvin-o; widower, vidv-o.

wig, peruk-o.

wild, sovag-a.

(be) willing, vol-i.

willingly, volont-e.

wilt, velk-i.

wind, vent-o, survolv-i; (twist),
tord-i; (a watch), strec-i.

winding, tord-a.

window, fenestr-o; ticket — ,
gi6et-o.

wine, vin-o.

winter, vintr-o.

wipe, vis-i.

wise, sag-a.

wish, vol-i, dezir-i.

witch, sorcistin-o; —craft, sorc-o.

with (prep.), kun (70, 76, 120,
159, 160) ; (by means of), per
(64); (agent of the passive),
de(i69); je (260); — regard
tc, rilate (266) ; — draw, elir-i,
forir-i; (= having), havante
(222).

wither, velk-i.

without (prep.), sen (248); see
also ftn., p. 193.

(give) witness, atest-i.

witty, sprit-a.

woe, malgoj-o; (interjection), ve
(273).

wolf, lup-o.

wonder, mir-i.

woo, amindum-i.

wood, lign-o.

wool, lan-o.

word, vort-o; (spoken), parol-o.

work, labor-i; (of machinery),

funkci-i; (literary composition),

verk-o.
world, mond-o.
worm, verm-o.
worship, ador-i; (divine service),

Diserv-o.
(be) worth, va!or-i.
worthy, ind-a (154, p. 206, ftn.).
wound, vund-i.
wreath, girland-o.
wrestle, barakt-i.
wretch, fripon-o, kanajl-o; — ed,

mizer-a, ac-a (272).
wrinkle, sulket-o, faldet-o.
write, skrib-i; (books, articles,

music), verk-i.
wrong, malprav-a, erar-a, mal-

just-a.

yawn, osced-i; (open), fendi|;-i.

year, jar-o.

yearn, sopir-i (p. 206, ftn.);

dezireg-i.
yellow, fiav-a; — ish, dubefiav-a.
yes (adv.), jes (171).
yesterday (adv.), hierafl (93,

171); day before — , antau-

hieraii.

ENGLISH-ESPEBANTO VOCABULARY.

323

yet (adv.), ankoraii (p. 112, ftn.);
jam (p. 124, ftn.); (conj.),
tamen (p. 32, ftn.). ■

yoke, jug-o.

you (pronoun), vi (32, 37,

39); see also oni (54).
young, jun-a; (offspring), id-o

(207).

zeal, fervor-o.
zenith, zenit-o.
zero, nul-o.
zigzag, zigzag-o.
zinc, zink-o.
zone, zon-o.
zoology, zoologi-C

INDEX.

INDEX.

The references are to sections, unless the page (p.) is given. The
following abbreviations are used: ace. = accusative; adj. = adjec-
tive; adv. = adverb; expr. = expressed; ftn, = footnote; inf. =
infinitive; intrans. — intransitive; prep. = preposition; trans. =
transitive. For Esperanto words whose use or meaning is specially
explained, references are given in the Vocabulary.

Abbreviations, 286; of ordinals, p.
107, ftn.

Abstract nouns, 202.

Accent, 8; of elided word, 280, b.

Accompamment, 70; distinguished
from instrumental' ^:y and opposi-
tion, p. 49. ftn.

Accordance, expr, by lau, igi.

Active voice, participles of, 108, 119,
152; tenses of, see Tenses; synopsis
of, 267.

Accusative, ending, 23; of adj., 24; of
pronoun, 37; of adv., 69, 121; of
direction, 46, 108; of measure. 139;
of time, 91; distinguished from
temporal adv., 94; with temporal
adv., 93; when avoided, 92; after
adv., 266; with intrans. verb, 264;
with nouns expressing motion, 263;
in composition, p. 132, ftn.; instead
of prepositional phrase, 265, 266;
not used after prep., 36, (al, gis,
tra) 46, (preter) p. 139, ftn.; not
used with article, 25; not used with
predicates, 25, 210; "cognate," see
ace. with intrans. verbs, 264, a.

Adjectives, defined, 12; ending of, 12;

formation of, 116, (from adv.) 171,
(from prep.) 159; attributive, 13;
ace. of, 24; plural of, 17; agree-
ment, (with nouns) 17, 21, 24, (with
pronouns) 33» (with words con-
nected by nek) 31; comparison of,
74; possessive, 43, (pronominal use
of) 45; predicate, 19, (after trans,
verbs) 210; use of, distinguished
from adv. with da, 103; demon-
strative, 65; distributive, 177;
indefinite, 208; interrogative, 112;
negative, 224; reflexive poss^sive,
44; relative, 150; causative verbs
from roots of, 214, a; intrans. verbs
from roots of , 232, c; cardinal, 136;
ordinal, 149.
Adverbs, defined, 66; primary, 66;
derived, 79 ; (from prep.) 120 ;
demonstrative, (He) 68, (Ham) 73,
(Hal) 78, (Hel) 88, (Horn) 104; inter-
rogative, (kie) 118, (kiam) 123, (kial)
129, (kiel) 134, (kiom) 140, (tu) 30,
p. 38, ftn.; relative, (kie) 151,
(kiam) 155, (kiel) 156, p. 170, ftn.,
(kiom) 164; distributive, (tie) 182,
(tiam) 187,' (cial) 188, (diet) 193,
(Horn) 194; indefinite, (ie) 209,
(iam) 212, (ial) 213, (iel) 216, (iom)

328

INDEX.

217; negative, (nenie) 225, (neniam)
226, (nenial) 229, (neniel) 230^
(neniom) 231, (ne) 27, 66, a; gen-
eralizing, (ajn) 236; numeral, 158;
position of, 66, a; expressing direc-
tion of motion, 69, 121; with ex-
pressions of time, 93; distinguif le J
from ace. of time, 94; with ace,
266; with prep., -87; calling atten-
tion, (jen) 228; causative verbs
from, 214, c; intrans. verbs from,
232, d; as interjections, p. 216, ftn. ;
derivation of words from primary,
171.

Adverbial clauses, p. 168, ftn.; par-
ticiple, 222, (translating "without ")
p. 193, ftn.

Adveraative conjunctions, p. 32, ftn.

Advice, expression of, 257, 259.

Affectionate diminutives, 283 (also
198, and ftn., p. 221).

Affiriaation, 66.

Affixes, see Prefixes, Suffixes.

Agency, expr. by de, 169.

Agreement, of attributive adj., 17,
(with ace.) 24; of predicate noun
and ad j . , 21; of adj . with two or
more nouns, 17; of adj. with words
connected by nek, 31; of adj. with
pronouns, 33; of participle, 108; of
nouns in apposition, 48.

Alphabet, i.

Anticipation, expr. by clause, 97; by
inf. with prep., 98.

Aoristic tenses, explained, p. 78, ftn.;
conjugation of, (present) 14, (past)
35, (future) 55. (conditional) 241,
(imperative), 254.

Apposition, 48.

Argumentative conjunction, p. 32, ftn.

Article, definite, 11; invariable, 18,
25; for possessive adj., 47; with
possessive adj., 45; generic, 201,
218, b, elision of, 280, a; no indcii-
nite, II.

Assumption, defined, 240 ; implied,

244.
Augmentatives, 122.
Auxiliary verbs, 109.

Cardinal numerals, 136; formation of,
142.

Case, see Accusative, Dative, Nomi-
native, Possessive.

(>^usative verbs, 214.

Cause, expr. by clause, 83; by pro, 86;
by ke, p. 222, ftn.

Characteristic, expr. by kun, 76; by
adverbial participle, 222.

Clauses, defined, p. 34, ftn.; adverbial,
p. 168, ftn.; causal, 83; of anticipa-
tion, 97; of duration of time, 96; of
imaginative comparison, 250; of
purpose, 262; of result, 105; subor-
dinate imperative, 259,

"Cognate ace," see ace. with intrans.
verbs, 264.

Collective nouns, 126.

Collective sense given by use of da,
103.

Commands, expression of, 256 ; in
subordinate clause, 259.

Complement of prep., 36.

Complementary inf., 29.

Comparison, of adj., 74; of adv., 79;
of words expressing quantity, 81;
containing ol, 82; ju and des in, 84.

Composition, see Compounds.

Compound tenses, explained, 109; of
impersonal verbs, 179; conjugation
of, see Tenses.

Compounds, dependent, 176; descrip-
tive, 167; possessive, 184.

Conclusion (of conditions) defined,
240; (of letters), see Correspond-
ence.

Concrete nouns, formation of, 227,

Conditional mood, 241 ; compound
tenses of, 242; in contrary to fact
conditions, 246; in less vivid condi-
tions, 243; independent use of, 244;
of devi, 247; conditional sentences,
see Conditions.

Conditions, defined, 240; contrary to
fact, 246; factual, 240; less vivid,
243; vivid, p. 189, ftn.; summary
of, 249.

INDEX.

329

Conjugation, 34; synopsis of, 267; of
tenses, see Tenses.

Conjunctions, defined, 52; coordinat-
ing, 52; subordinating, 53t (not
omitted) p. 34, ftn.; aii, p. 32, ftn.;
kaj, 26, p. 32, ftn.; ke, (in indirect
statements), 53» (in causal clauses)
83, p. 222, ftn.; (in result clause)
1 05, (in purpose clause) 262, (in
subordinate imperative clause) 259;
kvazaii, 250; nek, 31, p. 32, ftn.;
se, 240; sed, p. 32, ftn.; tamen, p.
32, itii.;do, p. 32, ftn.; see p. 110,
ftn.

Connection, expr. by de, 49; indefi-
nite, expr. by je, 260.

Consent, expression of, 257, (in subor-
dinate clauses) 259.

Consonants, combinations of, 6; pro-
nunciation of, 3, names of, 4.

Contrary to fact conditions, 246.

Coordinating conjunctions, 52.

Copulative conjunctions, p. 32, ftn.

Correlative words, 235*

Correspondence, 278.

D.

Dates, expr. by ace, 91; expr. by
antau, 90; expr. by prep., 89; on
letters, see Correspondence, 278.

*' Dative," ethical, of reference, of sep-
aration, p. 197, ftn.

Definite quantity, nouns of, followed
by de, 100.

Degree, advs. of, 66, (tiel) 88, (kiel)
134, 156; highest possible, 162; see
also Comparison.

Deliberation, expression of, 257, (in
subordinative clause) 2S9.

Demonstrative, pronoun, (Hu) 56, (ci
tin) 60, (tio, ti tio) 233; adjective,
65; adv., see Adverbs. '

Dependent compounds, 176.

Derivation, of adv., 79, (from prep.)
120; of words from prep., 159; of
words from primary adv., 171.

Descriptive compounds, 167.

Diminutives, 198; affectionate, 283.

Diphthongs, 5.

Direct object, defined, 23; inf. as, see
Complementary inf., 29; clause as,
53j 259; of complementary inf., 29;
of participle, 108; of prep., see
Complement, 36.

Direction, expr. by ace. (of noun) 46,
263, (of adv.) 121.

Disjunctive conjunctions, p. 32, ftn.

Distributive, prep., see po, 175; pro-
noun, (.Hu) i73i (.Ho) 233 ; adj.,
177; adv., see Adverbs.

Double letters, 6, e.

E.
Elision, 280.

Emphasis, by et, 66; by /a, 215.
Emphatic negation, 27.
Ending, of ace, 23; of adj., 12; of

adv., 79; of noun, 10; of plural, 16;

of inf., 28; of indicative, 14, 35, 55;

of conditional, 241, of imperative,

254; of participle, see Participles.
"Ethical dative," p. 197, ftn.
Exclamations, 115; use of /e in, 260.
Exhortation, 255.
Expedience, expressions of, 259.

F.

Factual conditions, 240.

Feminine nouns, form.ation of, 59.

Formation, of words, 116; of oppor
sites, 67, of feminines, 59; with
~ig- and -ig-, 239; from primary
words, 159, 171.

Fractions, 166.

Frequentative verbs, 218, a.

Future participle, (active) 152, (pas-
sive) 199.

Future tense, 55, (progressive) 114,
(passive) 183, periphrastic, 153, 200.

Future perfect tense, 148, (passive)
196,

Generic article, 201, 218, b.
Generalizing adv. ajn, 236.

330

INDEX.

H.
Highest degree possible, 162,

I.

Imaginative comparison, 250.

Imperative mood, 254; in commands
and prohibitions, 256 ; in resolve
and exhortation, 255, in subordi-
nate clauses, 259;. less peremptory
uses of, 257; to express purpose,
262.

Imperfect tense, 113, (passive) 178.

Impersonal verbs, 50, compound
tenses of, 179; modifiers of, 141.

Impersonally used verbs, explained,
141; modifiers of, 141,

Inchoative verbs, 232, a.

Indefinite connection, expr. by je, 260.

Indefinite, pronoun, (m) 203, {io) 233;
(personal) 54; adj., 208; advs., see
Adverbs ; prep. , 260 ; suffix, 268 ;
quantity, expressions of, with da,
99, loi.

Independent use of conditional mood,
244.

Indicative mood, defined, 241; tenses
of, see Synopsis, 267.

"Indirect object," see al.

Indirect quotation, tenses in, 58;
statements in, 53; questions in, p.
38, ftn.; p. 170, ftn*

Infinitive, defined, 28, 241; ending of,
28; complementary, 29; as subject,
29; modifiers of, 130; synopsis of,
267; with prep., 98; replaced by
noun, 218, b.

Instruction, (orders) , requests for,
257. 259.

Instrumentality, expr. by per, 64 ;
distinguished from, accompaniment,
p. 49, ftn.

Instruments, formation of names of,
63.

Intensive pronoun, mem, 219.

Intention, expr. by clause, 259.

Interjections, 273.

International money system, 285 ;
weights and measures, 284.

Interrogation, 30, 66, a.
Interrogative, pronoun, (Jciu) 106,

{kio) 233; adj., 112; advs., see

Adverbs.
Intransitive verbs, defined, 22 ; no

passive, p. 122, ftn.; from adj.

roots, 232, c ; from noun roots,

advs., preps., suffixes, prefixes, 232,

d; from trans, verb roots, 232, b,

(table of), 279.
Introductory particle, not needed, 50,

51-
Invariability, of article, 18; of mem,

219; of verb, 18; of cardinals, 136,
Inversion, not needed in questions, 30.

L.

Less peremptory uses of imperative*
257-

Less vivid conditions, 243.

Letters, names of, 4; double, pro-
nunciation of, 6, e; see also Corre-
spondence, 278.

Limitation of third personal pronoun,
42.

M.

Manner, expr. by kun, 76; expr. by .
■per, p. 53, ftn.; by adverbial par-
ticiple, 222; advs. of, see Adverbs.

Material, expression of, 197.

Means, expression of, 64.

Measure, ace. of, 139; expr. by /e, 260.

Measures, weights and, 284.

Metric system, 284.

Modifiers of impersonally used verbs,
141.

Money system. The international, 285.

Mood, defined, 241; inf., see Infini-
tive; conditional, 241 ; imperative,
254; indicative, see 267; in condi-
tion e, see Conditions.

Moral obligation, 247.

Motive or reason, advs. of, see Ad-
verbs; expr. by clause, 83; expr.
by prep., 86. .

INDEX.

331

N.

Names, of letters, 4; orthography of
proper, 128.

Necessity, expression of, 259.

Negative, pronoun, (neniu) 220;
(nmio) 233; adj., 224; advs., see
Adverbs; conjunction, 31.

"Nominative absolute," how ren-
dered, p. 169, ftn.

Nominative case, ending of, (for
nouns) 10, (for adj.) 12; of predi-
cate noun and adj., 25, 210; with
prep., 36, {al, gis, tra) 46.

Noun, defined, 10, ending of, 10,
plural of, 16; ace. of, 23; elision of ,
280, b; feminine, 59; numeral, 157;
participial, 205; predicate, 20, 211;
possessive case of, 49; expressing
motion, followed by ace, 263; ex-
pressing quantity, followed by da,
99, by de, 100; replacing inf., 218,
b; replacing participial phrase, p..
193, ftn.; from adv., 171; from
prep., 159-

Noun roots, causative verbs from, 2I4j
c; intrans. verbs from, 232, d.

Number, see Plural.

Numeral nouns, 157; advs., 158.

Numerals, cardinal, 136; formation
of, 142; fractional, 166; ordinal,
149; abbreviation of, p. 107, ftn.;
followed by el, 138.

O.

Object, see Direct object. Indirect
object, Complement.

Obligation, 247, (moral) 247.

Opposites, formation of, 67; of pli and
plej, 80.

Opposition, distinguished from accom-
paniment, p. 49, ftn.

Order, of word endings, p. 10, ftn.; see
also Position.

Ordinal numerals, 149; advs., 158;
abbreviation of, p. 107, ftn.

Orthography, of proper nouns, 128.

Part of the whole, expression of, (after
noun) 99, (after adv.) loi.

Participial nouns, 205; advs., 222,

Participle, defined, 108; agreement of,
108; adverbial, 222, (translating
"without") p. 193, ftn.; present,
108, (passive) 165; past, 119, (pas-
sive) 189; future, 152, (passive)
199.

Particle, introductory, not needed, 50,
51-

Partitive construction, p. 74, ftn.

Passive voice, agent of, 169; partici-
ples of, see Participles; tenses of,
see Tenses; of -ig- formations, 239;
distinguished from ~i^- formations,
232, b.

Past tense, 35, (passive) see Imper-
fect; past participle, see Participles.

Past periphrastic future, I53i (pas-
sive) 200.

Past inception, present action with,
131.

Peremptory commands and prohibi-
tions, 256, 259.

Perfect tense, 124, (passive) 190; per-
fect participle, see Past participle.

Periphrastic futures, 153* (passive)
200.

Permission, expression of, 269.

Perplexity, expression of, 257, 259.

Personal pronouns, 32; ace. of, 37;
indefinite, 54; reflexive, 39. 4o;
limitation of third personal, 42;
position of unemphatic, 274.

Place, expr. by te, 125; advs. of, see
Adverbs; expr. by ~e?-, iii; 128.

Pluperfect tense, 135^ (passive), i95>

Plural, of nouns, 16; of pronouns, 56,
106, 203, 173, 220; of adj., 16; of
unu, 137; none of article, 18; none
of pronouns ending in -o, 233.
Position, of attributive adj., 13; of
adv., 66, a; of emphatic negative,
27; of unemphatic pronoun, 274;
of interrogative adv., 30*
Possession, expr. by de, 49,

332

INDEX.

Possessive, adjective, 43; reflexive,
44; article for, 47; ftn., p. 221.

Possessive case of nouns, 49; of pro-
nouns, (ties) 62, (kies) 107, 147,
(dies) 174, (ies) 204, (nenies) 221;
see also Possessive adjective, 43*

Possessive compounds, 184.

"Possessive pronouns," p. 24, ftn.

Possibility, expression of, 270.

Predicate, adj., 19, agreement of, 21;
after trans, verbs, 210; noun, 20;
agreement of, 21; after trans, verb,
211; clause as, 259.

Prefixes, causative verbs from, 214, c;
intrans. verbs from., 232, d; prep,
as, 160, 248; adverb as, 71, 167, a,
interjection as, p. 216, ftn.; bo-,
277; dis-, 245; duon~, 2y*/; ek-,
206; eks-, 281; ge-, 271; mal-, 67;
pra-, 282; re-, 223.

Prepositions, defined, 36; with inf.,
98 ; with adv. , 87 ; with other
preps., 87; case use with, 36, 46;
expressing time relations, 89; as
prefixes, 1 60 ; word derivation
from, 159; ad vs. from, 120; causa-
tive verbs from, 214, c; intrans.
verbs from, 232, d; making intrans,
verbs trans., 264, b, c; see also refer-
ences in Vocabulary.

Prepositional phrase, ace. instead of,
26s, 266.

Present action with past inception ,
131.

Present periphrastic future, 153, (pas-
sive) 200.

Present participle, 108, (passive) 165.

Present tense, 14, (progressive) no,
(passive) 168.

Primary adverbs, defined, 66; deriva-
tion of words from, 171,

Probability, expression of, 270.

Progressive tenses, present, no,
future, 114; passive, 200.

Prohibition, expression of, 256, 259.

Pronominal adjective, pos:essive adj.
as, 45; pronoun as, (tiu) 57, 60,
(kiu) 106, 146, (tiu) 173, (iu) 203,
(neniu) 220, (amhaii) 238.

Pronouns, defined, 32 ; agreement
with, 33; personal, 32; indefinite
personal, 54; reflexive, 38, 39» 4o»
(in composition) p. 132, ftn.; pos-
sessive, p. 24, ftn.; possessive form
of, see Possessive case; limitation
of third personal, 42; position of
unemphatic, 274 ; correlation of
predicative or relative, 234; fol-
lowed by el, 173, p. 115, ftn.; series
in -o, 233; demonstrative, 56, 60,
233 ; distributive, 1 73. 233 ; in-
definite, 203, 233; interrogative,
106, 233; negative, 220, 233; rela-
tive, 146; 233; summary, 235;
arnbau, 238; intensive, 219.

proper nouns, orthography of, 128.

Protestations, use of je in, 260.

Proximity, expr. by ti, 60, 66, p. 229,
ftn.

Purpose, expr. by inf., 98; by im-
perative, 262; by prep., 95.

Q.

Quantity, construction with nouns ex-
pressing, 99, 100; construction with
advs. expressing, loi; advs. of,
(Horn) 104, (kiom) 140, 164, (tiom)
194, (iom) 217, (neniom) 231; com-
parison of advs. expressing, 81.

Questions, 30; indirect, p. 38, ftn., p.
170, ftn.; of deliberation, perplex-
ity, or for instructions, 257, 259.

Quotations, indirect, 53, 58.

R.

Reciprocal expressions, 180.
Reference, expr. by al, 251.
Reflexive pronouns, of first and second

persons, 39; of third person, 40;
with substantival inf., 130.
Reflexive possessive adjective, 44.
Reflexive verbs, 41 ; distinguished

from verbs in -ig-, 232, b.
Relative pronoun, (kiu) 146, (kio) 233;

not omitted, p. 106, ftn.

INDEX.

333

iRelative adjective, 150; relative ad-
■ verb, see Adverbs.
jRelative clause, see 146, 233, (tem-
poral) 155, (of manner) 156, (quan-
j titative) 164.

(Request, expression of, 257, 259; for
' instructions, 257, 259.
jResolve, expression of, 255,
iResult, clauses of, 105.
iRoot, defined, p. 42, ftn.
iRoute, expression of, 191,

S.

Salutations, 115.

Separation, expr. by de, 170; expr. by

al, 252; by for, 71; by dis-, 245.
Situation, expr. by te, 125; by adverb-
ial participle, 222.
Source, expr. by de, 170,
Statements, indirect, 53; tenses in, 58.
Subject, defined, 15; preceded by
! verb, 51; inf- as, 130; clause as,
I 141, 259; of adverbial participle,
I 222.

I Subordinate clause, defined, 53; im-

j perative in, 259, 262; conditional

I in, see Conditions, 243, 246.

I Subordinating conjunctions, ke, 53t

' IDS, 259, {tialke) 83, p. 222, ftn.; (por

I ke) 262; (not omitted) p. 34, ftn.;

;' se, 240; kvazaii, 250; 6u, p. 38, ftn.

1 Substantive, defined, p. 71, ftn.; inf.

j as, 98, 130; clause as, 53, 259.

i Substitution, expr. by prep., p. 63,

J ftn.; expr. by prep, with inf., 98;

of noun for inf., 218, b, p. 193, ftn.

; Suffixes, causative verbs from, 214, c;

I intrans. verbs from, 232, d; -ad-,

I 218; -a^-, 272; -aj-, 227; -an-, 145;

I -ar-, 126; -tj-, 283; -ehl-, 161; -ec-t

I 202; -eg-, 122; -ej~, rii; -em-, 192;

I -er-, 276; -estr-,25Z't ~et-, 198; -id-

207; ~ig~, 214, 239, 275; -ig-, 232,

239, 279; -il-, 63; -in-, 59; -ind-,

154; -ing-, 237; -ist-, 172, p. 154,

ftn.; -n/-, 283; -06K 186; -on-, 166;

-op-, 261; -WJ-, 181; -u?-, 132; -um-,

268.

Summary of conditions, 249.

Superlatives, (adj.) 74, (adv.) 79; fol-
lowed by el, 75.

Syllables, 7.

Synonyms, apparent, {diri: paroli:
rakonti) 77, (koni: scii) 117, (tempo;
fojo) 127, {logi: vivi) 133, (antikva:
maljuna: Tnalnova) p. 128, ftn., 67,
{&iu: tuta) p. 130, ftn., {indiferenta:
nezorga) p. 162, ftn., (provi: peni:
jugi) p. 228, ftn., {guste: juste: jus)
p. 198, ftn., {ankoraii: jam) p. 124,
ftn., p. 112, ftn., {trovigi: sin trovi:
kuH: sidi) p. 217, ftn.

Synopsis of the verb, 267.

System, correlative, 235; metric, 284;
of money, 285.

Temporal clauses, 96, 155.

Temporal adverbs, 66, (tiam) 73,
(kiam) 123, 155, (6iam) 187, (mm)
212, {neniam) 226, (jam) p. 124, ftn.
(ankoraii) p. 112, ftn., (jus) p. 116,
ftn.

Tenses, aoristic, p. 78, ftn. ; com-
pound, 109; (of impersonal verbs)
179; in indirect quotations, 58; in
conditions, 249 ; of inf., 267 ; of
conditional, 241, 242; of impera-
tive, 254; present, 14, (progressive)
no, (passive) 168, past, 35, (pas-
sive) 178; future, 55, (progressive)
114; (passive) 183; imperfect, ii3»
(passive) 178; perfect, 124, (pas-
sive) 190; pluperfect, 135, (passive)
195; future perfect, 148, (passive)
195; periphrastic, 153, (passive)
200; synopsis of all, 267.

Terminations, see Endings.

Terms of address, 163; affectionate,
283, p. 221, ftn.

Time, of day, 185; expr. by prep., 89;
expr. by ace, 91; expr. by clause,
96, 155; expr. by adverbial partici-
ple, 222; advs. of, see Temporal
adverbs.

Titles. 163; use of mo^to, 258.

334

INDEX.

Transitive verbs, defined, 22; formed
by -ig-, 214; frora intrans. roots,
264, b, c; list of some, 275.

U.

XJnemphatic words, position of, (nega-
tive) 27, (pronoun) 274.

V.

Verbal nouns in -ad-, 218, b, p. 193,
ftn.

Verbal roots, causative verbs from,
214, b.

Verbs, mood of, 241; invariable, 18;
causative, 214; frequentative, 218,
a; inchoative, 232, a; impersonal,
50; reflexive, 41; trans., defined,
22; trans, from intrans. roots, 275;
intrans., defined, 22; intrans. from
trans, roots, 332, b, 279 ; from

prep., 159; from adv., 171; con-
jugation of, 34, (synopsis) 267, pre-
ceding the subject, 51; as inter-
jection, p. 216, ftn.; implied, (in
comparisons) 82, 156, 250; (in salu-
tations) 115, (in exclamations) 115,
228; with prepositional phrase con-
taining da, 102.

Vivid conditions, p. 189, ftn.

Vowels, pronunciation of, 2.

W.

Way, expression of, (manner) 76^
(route) 191.

Weights and measures, 284.

Wish, expression of, 257, 259.

Words, correlative, 235; formation of,
116; from prepositions, 159; from
primary advs., 171; composition of ,
see Compounds; order of, in ques-
tion, 30; see also Position.